GALVANISM

norm: galvanism

text:
Another great discovery has been published, in addition to those important ones of Sir Humphry Davy, which he made at the Royal Institution, of the decomposing powers of galvanism, the brilliant effects of which, I well remember, excited wonder and astonishment in the crowded audiences that assembled in the lecture room of that establishment.

The one that is the subject of the present article, promises to be of great utility in the arts, by giving the means of obtaining facsimiles of engraved copper plates, of engravings on wood, of coins, medals, embossings, in short, of any engraved article, whether in cameo or intaglio. The productions by this process have been named Electrotype.

This is effected by placing the object to be copied in a solution of any metal, when the galvanic action precipitates the metal from the liquid that held it in solution, upon the engraving that is to be copied. This precipitation or deposition assumes the form of a cake of pure metal, with every line, however delicate, and every inequality, however minute, on its surface, so as to form a matrix or mould in the highest state of perfection.

When the matrix is thus formed, the engraving is withdrawn from the solution of metal, and the matrix substituted; the galvanic action is again renewed; a deposition of the metal upon the matrix now takes place; and the result is, a perfect facsimile of the original.

This is a short sketch of the principle of this discovery. It belongs to chemistry rather than to printing, to explain why the metal is precipitated in a solid mass and not in a fine powder; but such is the fact. The discovery has been applied to the production of facsimiles of engraved copper plates with the most complete success; and as it is now in a state of progress to produce copies of engravings on wood, and pages of types, so as to be applicable to letterpress printing, I will endeavour to give the present state of knowledge with respect to this application of the discovery, the process, and also specimens.

It is said that the discovery of this application of galvanism originated in perceiving a thin deposition of copper at the bottom of a galvanic battery, which, on being removed, displayed on its under surface a perfect cast of the bottom of the cell, and suggested an extended application. Be this as it may, the fact was noticed by Mr. Warren De la Rue, of Bunhill Row, in a communication to the Philosophical Magazine of September, 15, 1836, (vol. 9. p. 484,) where he says, “The zinc plate is always partially covered with a coating of copper, which, however, is not detrimental to the power of the battery: the copper plate is also covered with a coating of metallic copper, which is continually being deposited; and so perfect is the sheet of copper thus formed, that on being stripped off, it has the polish and even a counterpart of every scratch of the plate on which it is deposited.” The discovery of the application is claimed by two persons, M. Jacobi, a Russian, and Mr. Thomas Spencer of Liverpool. The latter presented a pamphlet containing the results of his discovery, and an account of his experiments, to the British Association in 1839, at which time M. Jacobi’s specimens were present and exhibited at the same meeting. Mr. Spencer has since prosecuted his experiments, and liberally given the details and the results to the public, in different publications; so that it is in fact to this latter gentleman that we are indebted for our information on the subject; but as it is now in the hands of a number of persons of ingenuity and ability, who are prosecuting experiments on it, there is little doubt but that it will soon be brought to a state approaching nearly to perfection.

As copper is usually employed for engravings, and is equally applicable to letterpress printing as to that of the rolling press; as it is easily obtained in solution, and is not an expensive article for this purpose, the process as here described is with that metal; other metals have been used for experiments, and it has been stated that articles in silver or gold may be produced with equal facility where facsimiles of them may be required, but the production of them in gold is doubtful.

In the process there are various things to be considered. Among which may be particularly mentioned the fact, that the solidity of the deposited metal entirely depends on the weakness or intensity of the electric action. This action may be regulated by increasing or decreasing the thickness of the plaster of Paris which separates the two metals, and by the coarseness or fineness of the material. Mr. Cooper states, “I made three similar experiments, altering the texture and thickness of the plaster each time, by which I ascertained that if the plaster partitions were thin and coarse, the metallic deposition proceeded with great rapidity, but the crystals were friable and easily separated; on the other hand, if I made the partition thicker, and of a little finer material, the action was much slower, and the metallic deposition was as solid and ductile as copper formed by the usual methods; indeed the action was exceedingly slow. I have made a metallic deposition apparently much harder than common sheet copper; but more brittle.”

A friend of mine used a common garden pot, with a cork in the perforation through the bottom, which answered very well, the copper deposited being fine and tough. I think a wine cooler would be a good vessel for that purpose, being porous; and either may be at hand, when there is not a suitable glass, or any plaster of Paris.

Mr. Crosse has stated, in the account of his experiments on the crystallization of metals, that he succeeded best when the solutions were kept at a boiling temperature; and Mr. Spencer informs us, that by keeping the solutions he employed at a temperature of from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and eighty degrees of Fahrenheit, he was able to abridge the time otherwise required, three or four fold.

In all scientific experiments, care and attention are requisite for a successful result: in this instance, let an uninterrupted circuit be maintained for the electricity, and let the wire have a perfect metallic contact with the plates which it connects; when it is an engraving on wood, bore a hole in the side of the block, and insert the wire in it. The zinc may be with advantage occasionally taken out of the saline solution during the operation, and cleaned in water. In the choice and application of the plates, it is better that they should be, as nearly as possible, of the same size, and it is of importance that the zinc should be as thick as the required deposition of copper, but it is easy when necessary to renew the zinc again and again. That the solution of the sulphate of copper may be continued in the necessary state, crystals of that substance should be occasionally added. When the process is long continued, the solution should be changed, for the sulphuric acid, which is set free by the deposition of the metallic copper, prevents the further action.

This was the first method; the plan now practised, to prevent any stoppage of the galvanic action by an excess of sulphuric acid occasioned by the decomposition of the sulphate of copper and the deposition of its copper in a metallic state, is to put into the acid a piece of copper in connexion with the positive pole, and thus, as the acid is set free by the galvanic action, it forms a new combination with the copper, and continues the supply of the sulphate without the necessity of changing the contents of the vessel.

In obtaining casts by this process, it must be borne in mind, that no metallic deposition can be made by voltaic electricity without the presence of a metallic surface or nucleus upon which to deposit: but this metallic surface should be given only to the part which is to be copied; the sides and bottom of the block may be covered with a varnish composed of shell lac dissolved in spirit of wine, which will prevent any metallic deposition from taking place upon those parts, as also the moisture from penetrating into the wood, and the deposition will in consequence be confined to the engraved surface.

In the management of the simple apparatus which is employed in electrotype, it is necessary to have the binding-screws, wires, and all the metallic surfaces, quite clean and bright, as also to avoid touching with the fingers that part on which the metal is to be deposited.

With regard to the first application of galvanism to the production of facsimiles of engravings on wood, Mr. Spencer states, after the publication of his pamphlet, “The wood engraving being given, take a piece of lead the required size; let its superfice be about one-eighth of an inch larger all round than that of the wood block. The lead must now be planed, just as a piece of soft wood; (the tool termed by a joiner a try plane does best;) a clear bright surface is thus obtained, such as I have been unable to get by any other means. The engraved surface of the wood must now be laid on the planed surface of the lead, and both put carefully in a press; should the engraving have more than two inches of superfices, a copying press is not powerful enough. Whatever press is used, the subject to be copied must be cautiously laid in the centre of the pressure, as a very slight lateral force will in some degree injure the process; the pressure to be applied regularly, and not with a jerk. When the pressure is deemed complete, they may be taken out, and if, on examination, the lead is not found to be completely up, the wood engraving may be neatly relaid on the lead, and again submitted to the press, using the same precaution as before. When the lead is taken out, a wire should be soldered to it immediately, and it should then be put into the apparatus without loss of time, as the less it is subjected to the action of the atmosphere the better: care should also be taken not to touch the surface with the fingers.”

Mr. Spencer also states that plumbers, who have handled lead for the greater portion of their lives, are astonished to find it so susceptible of pressure. On the contrary, wood engravers did not, until now, imagine that their blocks would stand the pressure of a screw press on a lead surface without injury; but such is the fact in both instances. In the manner in which box wood is used for wood engravings, being in horizontal sections, it will sustain a pressure of 8,000 lbs. without injury, provided the pressure is perfectly perpendicular.

Mr. Spencer has omitted to mention the size of the engraving; if it were one inch square, it would have a pressure of 8,000 lbs. on that inch; if it were nine inches square, it would only have a pressure of 100 lbs. on the square inch: with my experience of printing engravings on wood, I would not venture to submit one to a pressure of 8,000 lbs. to the inch for fear of crushing the lines. I mention this as a caution; it may prevent an accident.

This appears to have been the first method tried to produce a facsimile of an engraving on wood by means of galvanism, with a metallic mould obtained by impressing the engraved block upon a piece of lead. This not appearing to be perfectly satisfactory, other persons were induced to endeavour to make the discovery available for letterpress printing without the risk of injury to the engraving, to which this plan seemed liable; and the next advance towards the perfection of the process was an important one, being the introduction of the real object intended to be copied in the stead of the substituted mould, and obtaining a matrix from it at once by means of the galvanic process without resorting to any intermediate measures. This improvement was made by Mr. Robert Murray, who proposed “in January last to cover the surface of the wood with plumbago [black lead], so as to render it a conductor; and then to proceed in the usual manner for obtaining an electrotype copy,” as he informed me in a communication of the 21st of July, 1840. It is but fair to state, that this use of black lead has been objected to by some engravers on wood, as having a tendency to fill up the lines of a delicate engraving, and so to deteriorate the impressions taken from it; but I am now furnishing the public with the means of deciding on this question, by presenting an impression from an electrotype copy, executed by Mr. Murray according to his own ingenious plan, by the side of one from the original wood engraving, and I leave it to bear witness for itself. I cannot perceive any deterioration in the copy, nor any difference between the two impressions: in fact they appear as if they were duplicate impressions from the same engraving.

The following letter, addressed to the editor of the Athenæum, by Mr. Spencer, which appeared in that publication on the 4th of July, 1840, details another method of obtaining a metallic surface for an engraving on wood, &c. for the purpose of inducing the galvanic deposition of copper upon it and obtaining a copper mould, which appears to be free from the objections that have been raised to gilding, bronzing, and to black lead.

“In my pamphlet, printed last September, I there stated I considered the process comparatively incomplete, unless we were able to apply it to the multiplication of models in clay or wood, castings in plaster, wood engravings, &c., as the fact, that galvanic deposition always requires a metallic surface to act on, seemed to set bounds to those branches of its application. I then resorted to various expedients to surmount the difficulty; among others, that of gilding and bronzing the surfaces of such materials to a limited extent: this was successful, but still troublesome and expensive, and, more than all, the sharpness and beauty of the original was necessarily injured. I have since attempted to metallize surfaces by the use of plumbago (suggested to me many months ago by Mr. Parry of Manchester).

“Should I be desirous of obtaining a copper mould or cast from a piece of wood, plaster, or clay, or, indeed, any non-metallic material, I proceed as follows:—Suppose it is an engraved wooden block, and I am desirous of metallizing it, in order that I may be able to deposit copper on its surface (this example will hold good for any other material), the first operation is to take strong alcohol in a corked glass vessel, and add to it a piece of phosphorus (a common phial corked will answer the purpose); the vessel must now be placed in hot water for a few minutes, and occasionally shaken. By this means the alcohol will take up about a 300th of its bulk of phosphorus, and we thus obtain what I would term an alcoholic solution of phosphorus. The next operation is to procure a weak solution of nitrate of silver; place it in a flat dish or a saucer; the engraved face of the block must now be dipped in this solution, and let remain for a few seconds, to allow capillary action to draw it into the wood.

“This operation being performed, a small portion of the alcoholic solution of phosphorus must now be poured in a capsule or watch-glass, and this placed on a sand-bath, that it may be suffered to evaporate. The block must now be held with its surface over the vapour, and an immediate change takes place; the nitrate of silver becomes deoxidized and gives place to a metallic phosphoret of silver, which allows the voltaic deposit to go on with as much rapidity and certainty as the purest silver or copper.

“The whole process may be performed in a few minutes, and with absolute certainty of success. The interior or exterior surface of a plaster or clay mould of a statue, no matter what size, may be thus metallized with equal facility. For the process of vaporizing, and should the material to be acted on not be very large, I prefer fastening it to the top of a bell glass receiver with a bit of pitch or cement, and thus placing it over the capsule on the sand-bath; the phosphoric vapour is by this means equally diffused and not dissipated. An ethereal solution of phosphorus also answers; and a solution of either of the chlorides of gold or platinum may be used. I am inclined to think this process, independent of its uses in galvanic precipitation, may be applicable to other branches of art. I would recommend those curious of testing its effects, to try a small and sharp plaster of Paris medallion: dip its surface in a weak solution of nitrate of silver and take it out immediately; fasten it to the bottom of a glass tumbler, and at the same time have a little hot sand ready in a dish; lay the watch glass containing a few drops of the phosphoric solution on it; now place the mouth of the tumbler over all, and the medallion will be observed almost instantly to change colour. The operation is now completed. A piece of pottery ware in the state of biscuit may be acted on in a similar manner.

“Liverpool, June 27.

Thomas Spencer.”

Apparatus and process.—The annexed figure and explanation will afford an example of the action of a voltaic apparatus, and will be sufficient to render the subsequent details intelligible. a is a vessel filled with a solution of common salt, which is a compound of chlorine and sodium; b is a tube immersed therein, closed at the lower end with a piece of bladder stretched over it and firmly tied; this tube is filled with a solution of blue vitriol, that is, a compound of sulphuric acid and oxide of copper. A plate of copper c, and one of zinc z, connected by means of the wire w, are immersed in those fluids. The zinc decomposes the salt, with the chlorine of which it unites, forming chloride of zinc, while the sodium of the salt is repelled, and passing through the bladder, enters the solution of sulphate of copper, which it decomposes, uniting with the sulphuric acid and oxygen to form sulphate of soda, and setting free pure copper in the form of beautiful crystals, which are deposited on the plate c. The connecting wire w serves to convey electricity from c to z, and thus the action is maintained so long as any common salt and sulphate of copper remain undecomposed.

Mr. Spencer’s first attempt was made with a piece of thin copper plate, which he covered with a cement of beeswax, resin, and Indian or Calcutta red. The plate received its coating while hot, and on becoming cool, the experimenter scratched the initials of his name upon the plate, being careful to clear away all the cement from the scratches, so as to expose the copper below. A piece of zinc was attached to this plate by a copper wire, and the voltaic current was set in action by means of the simple apparatus shown in the adjoining figure.

a may be supposed to represent a glass vessel of convenient form. b a gas glass stopped at the lower end p, by a piece of plaster of Paris, to the depth of three quarters of an inch, z a plate of zinc, and c a similar piece of copper, a coin or any other metallic substance to be acted upon; and these two are connected by a copper wire, w. The inner vessel may be kept in its place by a cork, or any other means that may happen to be more convenient. A solution of sulphate of soda is poured into the gas glass, and the wire connecting the zinc and copper plates being bent, as shown in the figure, the zinc plate is immersed into the solution of sulphate of soda, and the copper plate into the solution of sulphate of copper.

In a few hours Mr. Spencer, in his experiments, found that the portion of the copper rendered bare by the scratches was coated with the pure bright deposited metal, while those portions which were still covered with cement were not acted on. It now became an important inquiry whether the deposition would retain its hold on the plate, and whether it would be of sufficient solidity to bear working from; that is, supposing an etching or engraving to be made, and the lines to be afterwards filled up with copper by the voltaic process, whether such lines could be printed from.

In order to answer this last question, Mr. Spencer coated with cement a piece of copper, and with a steel point endeavoured to draw lines in the form of network, so as to penetrate the cement and expose the copper. After this plate had been exposed to voltaic action, and then heated, so as to get off the covering of cement, the copper network came off with it. This happened many times; but by an accident it occurred to the experimenter to employ nitric acid to the plate, after it had been cemented and engraved on as before. It was then subjected to the voltaic process for forty-eight hours, when the lines were found to be entirely filled with copper. On applying heat, and then turpentine to get off the cement, it was found that the voltaic copper had completely combined with the plate on which it was deposited.

A plate was then coated with cement, and lines worked upon it by an engraver; but these lines were of a wedge-shaped form, leaving only a hair line of the copper exposed at the bottom, and a broad space near the surface; and where the turn of the letters took place, the top edges of the lines were galled and rendered rugged by the action of the graver. All this was objectionable; but another plate, similarly prepared, and engraved on with a sharp point, had the copper deposited on the lines; and this was printed from successfully.

This was an attempt to deposit lines upon a plate of copper by the galvanic action, and thus form an engraving in relief, which I have doubts of being successfully practised with finished subjects.

The application of heat separates the two metals, in consequence of their different expansibility when subjected to its influence.

Mr. Spencer gives the form of another apparatus on a more extended scale, which he recommends, as it may be employed in large works.

a is an earthenware vessel to receive the copper plate and the solution of sulphate of copper, in which it is to be exposed. b is another vessel of earthenware or wood, of such a size that it may fit into the outer one, as shown in the drawing; the bottom of this vessel being formed of plaster of Paris, or some other porous substance, which while it retains the solution of common salt may permit the voltaic action to go on without impediment. c is the copper plate to be acted on by the electricity upon which copper is to be deposited. z is the zinc plate, and the two are united by the wire w, which may either be done in the manner exhibited in the second engraving, or by the use of a binding screw s.

I have been anxious to give specimens of this discovery in its application to letterpress printing, with some account of the process by which copies are obtained from engravings on wood. I am gratified in being enabled to do this, and to give two subjects, by different processes in producing the matrices or moulds.

No. 1. is an impression from an engraving on wood by the late Mr. Branston, which I give for the purpose of comparing the copy with the original. From this engraving Mr. Murray, having metallized the surface with plumbago, according to his method, to induce a deposition of the copper upon it, obtained a copper mould by galvanic action; from this mould No. 2. was produced by the same process, and is an impression from the electrotype copy of No. 1.

No. 3. is an impression from an engraving on wood, from which a matrix was prepared in type metal by the process called polytype; this matrix was submitted to the galvanic action by Mr. Murray, and the deposition of copper produced the electrotype copy from which the impression No. 4. is printed.

No. 5. is a polytype copy in type metal from the same matrix as No. 4. These impressions are placed in juxtaposition, for the purpose of giving an opportunity of comparing them, and forming a true estimate of their respective merits.

There have been many attempts in London to obtain an electrotype copy of a page of types, but hitherto, I believe, without success; the difficulty arising from the deposition of copper getting under the projecting parts of the kerned letters, and also penetrating into the interstices between the letters and the words, and thus preventing the mould from being disengaged from the types, without using force and destroying a great number of letters. The following, No. 6., is an imperfect specimen of a page of diamond types, by Mr. Robert Branston, an engraver of eminence in wood, and Mr. Warren De la Rue. There are many difficulties yet to be overcome in the process of obtaining electrotype copies of types; but it will show what has already been accomplished, and I have not the least doubt that the combined skill and perseverance of Mr. Branston and Mr. De la Rue will in a short time overcome those difficulties, and produce perfect copies with ease and certainty.

The method adopted to procure this was as follows:—A mould in plaster of Paris was first obtained, and a stereotype plate was cast in it; high spaces and quadrats were used, to prevent as much as possible the inconvenience before spoken of; a mould was then obtained from the stereotype plate by the polytype process, in type metal, and from that mould, by the galvanic action, the electrotype copy from which the specimen No. 6. was printed.

In the first instance, the plan recommended by Mr. Spencer in the Athenæum of the 4th of July, 1840, of preparing the surface of the mould with silver, was adopted, but the sulphuric acid acted on the plaster of Paris of which it was formed, and rendered it useless.

Since the preceding was written and in print, I have been informed that Mr. Spencer has been more successful than the London experimenters, for, in a letter to me, dated Glasgow, September 17th, 1840, he says, “Had I been at home I should have sent you a copy of the first pamphlet, where you would have seen an octavo page of stereotyping by the Voltaic process.”

In the present early state of electrotyping we find that, as it is formed by the solution in water of a salt composed of sulphuric acid and copper, it is of course thinner and the copper more attenuated than type metal is when in a state of fusion; it will necessarily penetrate into all the delicately engraved parts of a subject more completely than melted metal, and must therefore produce a more perfect facsimile than a casting; I believe this is undeniable, for copies of copper plate engravings of great fineness have been produced in the highest state of perfection as facsimiles. Another point is, that copper is tougher than type metal, and not so liable to have the letters break off and fail in the process of printing, and of consequence will be more durable. But it appears to me that one of its most valuable applications will be to the printing of Bibles, for by obtaining copper matrices of the pages by this process new editions may be multiplied to any extent, and when the plates are much worn they may be renewed at any future time, without incurring the expense of recomposing the book; which is not the case with stereotype plates. But the applicability of the discovery is as yet in its infancy, as these specimens are, I believe, the first that have been published of impressions of letterpress electrotype plates, and the ingenuity of man is at work to extend and improve the discovery.

In giving the foregoing account of experiments that have been made on this discovery of the application of galvanism to the production of copies of the works of art, and more particularly with respect to engravings on wood, as connected with letterpress printing, to which this work is confined, it is evident that the persons making these experiments are not availing themselves of the information which may easily be procured, that is, of ascertaining what are the requisites to enable a printer to make use of these copies in the regular way of business; excepting this be done, the discovery will not be available for general purposes, and will be viewed only as a curiosity: one point, to which I would particularly draw their attention, is the difficulty experienced in separating the matrix from the original, and again of separating the copy from the matrix; in both these cases they have the deposition of copper too thin, and in the act of separation both the matrix and the copy are twisted and distorted; they are then filled in at the back with some soft metal, which is planed in a rough manner, and delivered in this condition, unfit for the press, at which it is almost impossible to obtain a good impression. I would suggest that the deposition of copper should be continued for a longer time, so as to have the metal thicker, both in the matrix and the copy; if any irregularity in the surface then take place in the act of separation, it ought to be reduced before it is filled in with metal at the back; when that is done it should be turned in a lathe, as stereotype plates now are; it would thus be of an equal thickness throughout without any unevenness on the surface or back, and when mounted type-high might be printed without more trouble than wood cuts or stereotype plates are; thus enabling the printer to produce impressions without difficulty that would show the merits of the discovery in a fair manner, which at present cannot be done without great trouble and loss of time.

No. 1. An Impression from an Engraving on Wood.

No. 2. An Impression from an Electrotype Copy of No. 1.

No. 6. An Impression from an Electrotype Copy of a Page of Diamond Types.

caption: Apparatus for galvanic action

alt: Apparatus for galvanic action

caption: Another apparatus

alt: Another apparatus

caption: Larger scale apparatus

alt: Larger scale apparatus

alt: First print depicting a forest scene

alt: Second print, same scene

caption: No. 3. An Impression from an Engraving on Wood. No. 4. An Impression from an Electrotype Copy of No. 3. No. 5. An Impression from a Polytype Copy of No. 3.

alt: Three prints of a boat at sea

alt: A page printed by Electrotype


gambier

norm: gambier

kind: definition

letter: G

letter_raw: G

text: A tannin obtained from the leaves and stems of Uncaria gambir, a shrubby climber found in Indonesia and surrounding areas. It contains catechu-tannic acid (22 to 50%) and catechin (7 to 33%), as well as varying amounts of vegetable acids and their salts, sugar, starch, cellulose, wax, oil, and mineral matter. The catechin is not identical with that of CUTCH. It is one of the condensed tannins and has a relatively high pH value and total salts content. Used alone, gambier produces a rather spongy leather; however, when used in combination with other tannins, such as wattle extract or myrabolans, it is well suited for both heavy and light leathers. In England, it has been used mainly for the tannage of calf and kip skins. Also known as "catechu," "pale catechu," and "terra japonica." See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS.

siglum: RE

author: Roberts, Matt T.; Etherington, Don

work: Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology

rights: US Government publication (Library of Congress), published openly in electronic edition by CoOL. Not a Gutenberg/pre-1930 public-domain text -- verify rights before reprinting rather than quoting.

rights_tier: us-government-flagged

citations: Frank Norman. Howes, Frank Norman. Vegetable tanning materials. London. Butterworth. 1953.


gamma cellulose

norm: gamma cellulose

text:
See textual note

That portion of a cellulosic material that remains in solution subsequent to neutralization of the alkaline solution obtained in the ALPHA CELLULOSE test. See also: BETA CELLULOSE.

citations: American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

citations: Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.


gampi

norm: gampi

text: A shrub, Wikstroemia canescens, indigenous to the mountain forests of central and southern Japan, the bast fibers of the inner bark of which are used in papermaking.


gang stitching

norm: gang stitching

text: An automatic or hand fed production line method of fastening leaves together with wire staples. See also: SIDE STITCHING.


gape

norm: gape

variant: gaping

text: A condition in which the covers of a book are not parallel but are further apart at the fore edge than at the spine, i.e., the book does not close properly. Gaping, or yawning, as it is also called, may be caused by improper insertion of folded material without adequate stubbing; by improper covering or casing-in technique, in which the case is in effect too small for the text block or the covering material is drawn on too tightly; or, in the case of vellum books or bindings, by the absorption of moisture, which causes the vellum covers to warp.

citations: Cummins, John Francis. The printer's guide. 2nd ed. Dublin. n.p. 1952.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


GARTER

norm: garter

text:
In wooden presses, two flat pieces of iron with a semicircle cut in one end of each, and a projecting part at the other ends; in the projecting parts there is a hole at each end, those in the front piece for a screw to go through, and those in the back piece are tapped to receive a screw.

The hose has a horizontal mortise through it, exactly at the groove in the spindle; this mortise is to receive the garter, which, when driven close up from back and front, clasps the spindle in the groove by means of its semicircular ends, which are made to fit into this groove; and the two parts are kept firmly together by the screws that pass through the projecting ends on two sides of the hose.

Its use is to lift up the platen on the return of the bar, to admit the carriage to be run in and out.

siglum: DAP

author: Savage, William

work: A Dictionary of the Art of Printing

rights: Public domain (Project Gutenberg, pre-1930 text)

rights_tier: public-domain


gas black

norm: gas black

text: A black pigment used in the manufacture of printing ink, and produced by burning gas with insufficient oxygen for complete combustion to take place. Thick soot is deposited on metal cylinders in much the same manner as LAMPBLACK from oil. Gas black is practically pure carbon.

citations: Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


Gascon

norm: gascon

text: Le, style. The distinguishing feature of this style is the dotted face of the ornaments instead of the continuous or solid line. Wherever these dotted ornaments are used the style is called Le Gascon. Time, the first half of the seventeenth century, immediately following that of Nicholas and Clovis Eve.

siglum: NBL

author: Bailey, Arthur L.

work: Notes on Bookbinding for Libraries


Gascon, Le

norm: gascon, le

text:
The name associated with a luxurious style of finishing introduced in France in the early 17th century. The "Le Gascon" style, known as POINTILLÉ, is made up of interlaced bands, enclosing geometrical compartments which are filled with innumerable gold dots, frequently elaborated into lines and curves of remarkable luster and elegance.

Over the years many stories have arisen concerning "Le Gascon." One is that he worked as a bookbinder, or, more likely, as a gilder in the Eve's bindery, from which he took the style later to be called FANFARE STYLE (with its complicated geometrical framework) as the basis of his designs, but worked out all of the scrolls in fine dots instead of solid lines. While finishing tools had begun to become more finely cut with the Eves, they reached th pinnacle of delicacy and perfection with the work of this gilder or group of gilders. It has also been suggested that "Le Gascon" was the pseudonym of a famous binder, and it has been argued that the possibility exists that "Le Gascon" was employed by Gaston, Duke of Orleans.

Despite the speculation, there are no records to indicate just who "the man" may have been. There are documents indicating that someone going by the pseudonym "Le Gascon" was, as early as 1622, producing the most splendid bindings of that time. It is perhaps only natural that attempts should be made to link this name with the finest of the early pointillé bindings, but to date no binding can be said to he the work of anyone by that name. Three very intricate pointillé bindings, signed by FLORIMOND BADIER, do exist, but since Badier did not even begin his apprenticeship until 1630, he cannot have been "Le Gascon."

citations: Dutton, Meiric Keeler. Historical sketch of bookbinding as an art. Norwood. Holliston Mills. 1968.

citations: Fletcher, William Younger. Bookbinding in England and France. London. Seeley. 1897.

citations: Harrison, T. The bookbinding craft and industry; an outline of its history, development, and technique. London. Pitman. 1926.

citations: Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore. The history of bookbinding 525-1950 A.D. Compiled by Dorothy Miner. Baltimore. Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery. 1957.

citations: Zahn, Otto. On art binding, a monograph. Memphis. Toof. 1904.


gatefold

norm: gatefold

text: An illustration, map, or other leaf larger in one dimension than the other leaves of the publication and which consequently must be folded, usually at the fore edge or head, to make it the same size as the other leaves.

citations: Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.

citations: Teigen, Kit. Graphic arts, an introduction…Wayne, Pa. Management Development Institute. 1968.


GATHER BOOKS

norm: gather books

text:
Gathering of books is to take one sheet off every heap, beginning at the last sheet first, viz. at the left hand end of the range.—M. We now reverse the heaps, and place the first signature where they used to place the last; they then gathered, placing each sheet upon the other: we now gather under each sheet, which is a much quicker way. See Gathering.

Gather Corrections. See Corrections.


gathering

norm: gathering

text:
1. The process of collecting, and arranging in proper order for binding, the printed sheets or sections of a publication, which, in the case of sections, takes place after folding. 2. The group of leaves formed by folding and combining the one or more sheets or half sheets which make up a section (signature). The sheet is the printer's unit, while the gathering is the binder's unit. In the case of the octavo, the gathering normally comprises one sheet folded three times; however, in larger or smaller volumes, it may consist of two or more sheets, or sheets and half sheets. 3. See: CATCH STITCH.

See textual note

citations: Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.

citations: Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


GATHERING

text:
In making the printed sheets of a work up into copies in the warehouse for delivery, a number of them in orderly succession are folded together, which is called a gathering; a volume may be complete in one gathering, or it may consist of two, three, four, or more.

When there are more than one gathering in a volume, the warehouseman endeavours to have the number of sheets in each nearly equal; and he very rarely puts less than ten, or more than fifteen, in one gathering.

He lays down upon the gathering table a heap of each signature, commencing with B, or whatever signature the body of the work may begin with, following each other in regular order, according to the letters of the alphabet, and as many as he intends to include in the first gathering, with the first page of each to the front of the table. If it be a long number, he seldom lays down more than a bundle of each signature at once, that the top sheets may not be higher than the boys can conveniently reach.

The first signature is placed at the extreme end of the table to the left hand, that if there be any space more than is actually wanted upon the table, it may be at the end where the gathering concludes, to allow the boys to knock up the sheets without crowding each other.

In commencing gathering it is necessary that the boys should have clean hands, otherwise they will dirty many sheets with the end of the right thumb.

A boy wets the end of his right thumb with the tip of his tongue, and pushes up with it the right hand corner of the first sheet, the fingers of his left hand being laid upon the sheet to prevent its slipping away, and he catches it up with the thumb of his left hand underneath it, and draws it upon the next heap; he does the same by this, and so continues drawing the accumulating sheets in his left hand over the successive heaps, and taking one from each, till he gets to the end; he then knocks this gathering up even at the ends and sides, and lays it down at the end of the table, which being what is styled a horse-shoe table, he has only to turn himself round, when he is again facing the first signature, to recommence the operation, always knocking up his gathering, and laying it evenly upon the other, till it accumulates to a pile.

In the regular routine of business, where despatch is necessary, three or four boys are generally put to one gathering table, who follow each other regularly, knocking up their gatherings, and piling them up on the end of the table. Among them there is frequently an inexperienced boy; to prevent delay, this boy is ordered to lay his gathering down at the end, and the next boy knocks it up with his own: if the boy has quickness and spirit, he exerts himself to become expert, and to equal the others.

If the collation of the book is going on at the same time, it prevents the pile of gatherings from accumulating too much; if it be not, the pile must be removed occasionally, to prevent it getting too high for the boys to deposit their gatherings.

They thus proceed till one, or more, of the heaps is exhausted, when the remnant of the others is folded in the middle, each signature by itself, and tied up in a bundle, enclosed in wrappers; but if the book be collating, the drawn sheets are previously laid down, which enables them generally to gather off a few more copies.

In the course of gathering, if a boy perceives that the sheets in any of the heaps are turned the wrong way, he should immediately announce it, that they may be placed right; he should be likewise very particular to take one sheet from each heap, as also to avoid taking two: any of these errors causes a great deal of extra trouble in collating, and of course a consequent loss of time, in addition to making the work unpleasant.

After the gatherings are collated, they are knocked up carefully at the ends and sides, and folded evenly in the middle; folios, quartos, and octavos, in the regular fold of the paper, and twelves the long way in the back; for a gathering is never folded in a page, neither lengthways nor crossways. They are then put into a press, a moderate quantity being placed between each two boards, and the press wrung well down; after having lain in the press a sufficient time, they are taken out, and piled away till the work is completed, and they are wanted for Booking.

If copies of a work are required to be delivered as soon as the last sheet is put to press, which at the present day is commonly the case, the warehouseman should be prepared to meet the wishes of his employer’s customers, by having the book gathered close up to the last gathering; having them all pressed and booked; and as fast as the last sheet is worked off, keep hanging it up very thin in the most favourable part of his poling for drying, and even dry a few by the fire to commence with. He will thus have the last gathering only to put together, and in some cases he may have part of that done; so that if he put his boys to gather, himself to collate, another to fold the gatherings and put them into the press, he may in less than two hours, in a case of emergency, deliver fifty or a hundred copies of a work without difficulty, and obtain credit to the house and to himself for despatch and attention, both of which cannot but be gratifying to him. See Booking. Collating. Lay Down.


gathering

text: The process of arranging the sheets according to the signatures.

siglum: MAB

author: Nicholson, James B.

work: A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding


gathering

text: Collecting the various sheets from piles when folded, so that the |176| arrangement follows the sequence of the signature.

siglum: ABB

author: Zaehnsdorf, Joseph W.

work: The Art of Bookbinding: A Practical Treatise


gathering

text: collecting one sheet from each pile in a printer’s warehouse to make up a volume.

siglum: BCB

author: Cockerell, Douglas

work: Bookbinding, and the Care of Books


gathering

text: The process of collecting the several sheets which make a book and arranging them according to the signatures.


gathering machine

norm: gathering machine

text:
A machine used mainly in edition binding to collect and arrange in proper order the folded sheets, i.e., sections, of a book, preparatory to binding. The sections are placed in sequence in the pockets or hoppers of the machine and are released individually to a conveying mechanism. Once the machine is in full operation it produces a complete group of sections at every move, i.e., if the book consists of twelve sections, on the twelfth and every move thereafter the machine produces a complete gathering. Every time the conveying mechanism advances, a section is deposited on the conveying mechanism at every feeding station, the complete gathering being assembled at the last station. The total number of stations depends on the number of sections needed for the book being gathered.

All gathering machines designed for uninterrupted operation have continuous feed and remove individual sections from the bottom of the respective piles, thereby making the top of the pile always accessible for the addition of sections.

Three different systems are used in gathering machines: the swinging gathering arm system, the rotary drum system, and the planetary system.

The swinging gathering arm system operates by pulling the section by suction along the fold edge from the pile, gripping it in jaws and dropping it onto the conveyer system. In the rotary drum system, the sections are removed by grippers built into the surface of the rotating drum. In the planetary system, the bottom of the pocket is a drum equipped with rotary vacuum suckers which roll the sections away from the bottom of the pile and transfers them to the grippers on a transfer cylinder, which, in turn deposits them on the conveyer system.

If a section is omitted, or if two sections from the pocket are deposited on one pile, mechanical devices, called calipers, stop the machine and indicate the pocket where the mistake occurred. The calipers are also capable of detecting an incomplete section.

The first gathering machine was introduced by Endicott D. Averell of the United States in 1875. This machine had feed problems which were eventually overcome by a machine developed by F. Wood in 1886. The period of greatest development of gathering machines was 1890 to 1903.

citations: Comparato, Frank E. Books for the millions; a history of the men whose methods and machines packaged the printed word. Harrisburg, Pa. Stackpole. 1971.

citations: Jennett, Sean. The making of books. 4th ed. New York. Praeger. 1967.


gathering table

norm: gathering table

text: 1. A long, narrow table, usually in the shape of a horseshoe, or oval, on which flat sheets or sections are laid in piles in proper order for gathering. 2. A rotating circular table around which gatherers sit and assemble sections as the table rotates, presenting consecutive sections. The variable speed table is rotated by an electric motor operated by a foot pedal. The rotating gathering table is usually used for short runs of edition bindings.

citations: Porte, Roy Trewin. Dictionary of printing terms. 4th ed. Salt Lake City. Porte. 1941.


GATHERING TABLE

text: A table in the warehouse on which the printed sheets are arranged in the order of their signatures, in order to their being gathered into books. It is usually a horse-shoe table, and the boys gather on the inside, so that when they have completed one gathering they have only to turn round and commence again. Where there is space enough in the warehouse it ought to be sufficiently large to hold at least fifteen sheets, with room at the end for the heap and for the knocking up of each gathering.


gauffered edges

norm: gauffered edges

variant: goffered

text:
The edges of a book, usually gilded, which have been decorated further by means of heated finishing tools or rolls which indent small repeating patterns. Gauffering is most successful on a book printed on hard paper and gilt solid. It may be done directly on the gold, or by laying a different colored gold over the first, and tooling over the top gold, leaving the pattern in the new gold impressed on the original metal. The effect of gauffering is sometimes enhanced by scraping away parts of the gold and then staining the white paper showing through. While this technique was used by a number of European bookbinders, it was especially associated with German bookbinding of the 16th century. The use of color on the edges of books bound in England was less frequent and more restrained. Plain gauffering was done well into the 17th century, usually on embroidered bindings, but appears to have declined sharply after 1650 or so. It was then revived and exploited from the end of the 18th century onwards, and was especially popular in the latter half of the 19th century, when it was found on elaborately bound devotional and other books.

Almost all gauffering was done with pointillé tools, or, as in many examples, the designs were built up with repeated impressions of a large dot. Pointillé tools, as well as those cut in outline, produce delicate effects and are more easily impressed on a hard paper surface than are solid tools. The term comes from the French word for honeycomb, and also applies to the practice of crimping or fluting cloth with heated gauffering irons. See PLATE VI.

citations: Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.


Gaufre Edges

norm: gaufre edges

text: Impressions made with the finisher's tools on the edges of the book after gilding.

siglum: BIB

author: Sabin, Joseph

work: Bib-li-op-e-gis-tic: Pertaining to the Art of Binding Books


GAUGE

norm: gauge

text:
A Gauge, to regulate the margin, is used both by compositors and pressmen, in their respective departments.

When a compositor commences a work, or joins a companionship, it is necessary that he cut a gauge to the length of a regular page of his work; to do this he should take a page without any chapter head lines, of the regular number of lines, and cut his gauge to the exact length, including the head and the direction line; a piece of great primer reglet is a convenient thickness, and marking the name of the work on it may prevent errors. Many compositors mark the length of the page upon a piece of furniture, and make it answer for two, three, or four works; but I have known mistakes occur in making-up, from adopting this method, that have caused a great deal of trouble in remaking up the succeeding pages.

In works that are printed with large letter, and have many head lines in the pages, and much white between the lines, I would advise a gauge to be cut on which the situation of each line should be marked; this will enable the compositor to make up his pages, so that, when the sheet is worked off, line shall fall upon line, which will add a beauty to his work, and save a great deal of trouble, by rendering unnecessary any alteration of the whites.

After the first sheet of a work has been imposed, and the margin made right by the person who has the superintendence of this department, a gauge should be cut to the exact width of the back, and another to that of the head; a piece of thin reglet being used for each, marked with the name of the work, and with the words, “back,” and “head;” a hole may be made in each piece that they may be tied together, so as to hang them upon a nail driven into some part of the frame; and a fresh sheet should never be imposed without trying the margin before it is locked-up. I am aware this is being more particular than is the general custom; but, if a compositor adopt the method, he will find that it will not take more than a minute of additional time, and will eventually be a saving by preventing mistakes, and he will thus send each sheet to press in a workmanlike manner.

The pressmen require a gauge in all folio works, in order to keep the head lines of the pages of each sheet precisely at the same distance from the edge of the paper. This head margin is determined by the overseer, or master printer, when the first sheet goes to press; the pressman should then cut his gauge, mark it with the name of the work, and keep it in some secure place, to lay the succeeding sheets on by, so that the work may have a uniform head margin, which, as the bookbinder always makes the head lines range, will prevent the book being reduced in size by cutting, an object of serious consideration in a library.


Gauge

text: Used in forwarding to take the correct size of the volume and to mark it upon the boards for squaring.


Gauge

text: A strip of reglet with a notch in it, passed with the make-up, to denote the length of the pages.

siglum: AMP

author: MacKellar, Thomas

work: The American Printer: A Manual of Typography


Gauge

text: The tool used in forwarding to take the correct size of the volume and to mark it upon the boards for squaring.


Gauge-pin

norm: gauge-pin

text: An instrument to aid in feeding job presses correctly.


Geat

norm: geat

text: is the little Spout or Gutter made in the Brim of *Casting Ladles*.

siglum: MOX

author: Moxon, Joseph

work: Moxon's Mechanick Exercises, Volume 2


gel

norm: gel

text: 1. A semisolid mass, resembling jelly, capable of deformation by heat or pressure. 2. A system of solid aggregates dispersed through a liquid carrier medium. 3. A non-flowing adhesive mass exhibiting strong cohesive forces having low shear strength. 4. See: GELATIN.

citations: Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957

citations: Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.


gel strength

norm: gel strength

text: The strength of a gel or jelly (such as gelatin or glue), often expressed as the weight in grams required to force a plunger into a test sample under specified conditions. The gel strength test is based on the fact that a solution containing lo or more of gelatin, when allowed to stand at a temperature of approximately 50° F., will form a firm jelly. If different glue solutions of identical concentration are permitted to chill or set, the quality of the glue will, in general, correspond to the consistency of the jelly formed.

citations: Kantrowitz, Morris S., and others. Flexible glues for bookbinding. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. (Technical bulletin, no. 24). 1941.


gelatin

norm: gelatin

text: A complex protein of the scleroprotein class, having a molecular weight varying from about 40,000 to 100,000. It occurs in bones and fibrous tissue in the form of its anhydride, collagen, which is converted into gelatin on boiling with dilute acids. Gelatin swells in cold water, but is insoluble in it. It dissolves in hot water and produces a very viscous solution, e.g., a solution containing 1% or more solidifies to a jelly upon cooling. Gelatin is particularly rich in glycene and lysine. It is manufactured from hides and bones, principally those of bovine animals, and differs from GLUE in its purity and in the care observed in its manufacture. It is used in the manufacture of glue and photographic film, and in the tub-sizing of paper.

citations: Grant, Julius. Books & documents; dating, permanence and preservation. London. Grafton. 1937.

citations: Karch, Robert Randolph. Graphic arts procedures. 4th ed. Chicago. American Technical Society. 1970.


gelation

norm: gelation

text: The partial coagulation of a lyophilic sol which results in the formation of a GEL (1).


gelation time

norm: gelation time

text: The interval of time between the introduction of a catalyst into a liquid adhesive and gel formation. The term is used with reference to synthetic thermosetting resins.

citations: Mayer, Ralph. A dictionary of art terms and techniques. New York. Crowell. 1969.


general job binding

norm: general job binding

text: A general type of binding in which odd jobs, either for the customer or the trade, are performed. Job binding of this type generally includes some library style binding and small runs of edition binding, i.e., runs under 1,500 copies.

citations: Feipel, Louis Nicholas, and Earl W. Browning. Library bookbinding manual…Chicago. American Library Association. 1951.


general office stationery binding

norm: general office stationery binding

text: A class of binding involving the production of speciality items, including pads, blotters, files, and the like. This type of binding often takes place as a sideline in a binder specializing in STATIONERY BINDING. See also: PADDING.


Gentile, Antonio

norm: gentile, antonio

text: A Roman goldsmith who produced perhaps the most remarkable silver binding that has come down from the Renaissance. The cover, which protects an equally distinguished Renaissance manuscript, the Book of Hours, written by the scribe Francesco Monterchi, and illuminated by Giulio Clovio, for Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, consists of wooden boards covered with parcel gilt silver that is very delicately worked in low relief and openwork. Each cover has a frame of foliage in relief against a pierced ground which is interrupted at intervals by masks, with fleurs-de-lis in the corners. The panel is divided into four sections filled with male and female figures whose bodies terminate in curving foliage. In the center a large oval depicts the annunciate angel on the upper cover and the Virgin Mary on the lower, both in relief. The spine of the binding is covered with a plate of silver decorated with foliate designs in low relief between four double raised bands. The doublures of silver are engraved with Farnese arms and the names of Cardinals Allesandro and Odoardo Farnese.

citations: Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore. The history of bookbinding 525-1950 A.D. Compiled by Dorothy Miner. Baltimore. Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery. 1957.


GEOMETRICAL CHARACTERS

norm: geometrical characters

text:
+ plus, or more, the sign of addition; signifying that the numbers or quantities between which it is placed are to be added together.

- minus, or less, the sign of subtraction; signifying that the latter of the two quantities between which it is placed is to be taken from the former.

~ denotes the difference of two quantities when it is not known which is the greater.

× into, the sign of multiplication; signifying that the quantities between which it is placed are to be multiplied together.

÷ by, the sign of division; signifying that the former of the two quantities between which it is placed is to be divided by the latter.

: as, or to, :: so is, the sign of an equality of ratios; signifying that the quantities between which they are placed are proportional to each other.

= equal to, the sign of equality; signifying that the quantities between which it is placed are equal to each other.

√ the radical sign; signifying that the quantity before which it is placed is to have some root of it extracted.--Bonnycastle’s Geometry. 12mo. 1823.

[#] Formerly used to denote equal to, but is become obsolete.

△ Triangle; as △ABC = △ADC.

∠ An angle.

⟂ Perpendicular.

▭ Rectangled parallelogram.

⊏ or >, greater than.

⊐ or <, lesser than.

∹ The differences, or excess.


GERMAN

norm: german

text:
“It is generally admitted, that the ancient Germans had not the use of letters, before their intercourse with the Romans; the testimony of Tacitus is decisive on this subject. ‘Literarum secreta viri pariter ac fœminæ ignorant.’ Hence we conclude, that the Teutons, who anciently inhabited the neighbouring coast, and islands of the Baltic Sea, had no letters, till their descendants, who settled in Belgic Gaul, obtained them from the Romans. The Teutonic alphabet is evidently deduced from the Roman, and is nothing more than the Roman varied by the Germans, which, having been much deformed, was improved by Charlemagne in the ninth century, and continued till the twelfth, when this kind of writing was succeeded by the modern Gothic, which prevails in Germany, and in several of the northern countries of Europe at this time.”—Astle.

German Alphabet.

In addition to the characters of the preceding alphabet, the Germans make use of three, which are vowels: Ae, ä or á, expressed by the Roman character ä, and having the sound of e in where. Oe, ö or ó, and in the Roman character ö, which has the sound of eu in the French heure. Ue, ü or ú, having its representative in the Roman ü, and its expression in the thin u of the French in vertu.

The Germans also make use of the following double letters in printing:

“In the printed alphabet some letters are apt to be mistaken and confounded one with another. To facilitate the discrimination the difference is here pointed out.

“B and V. The latter is open in the middle, the former joined across.

“C and E. C has a little horizontal stroke in the middle, projecting to the right, which E has not.

“G and S. These letters, being both of a round form, are sometimes taken for one another, particularly the G for the S. But S has an opening above, G is closed, and has besides a perpendicular stroke within.

“K, N, R. K is rounded at the top, N is open in the middle, R is united about the middle.

“M and W. M is open at the bottom, W is closed.

“b and h. b is perfectly closed below, h is somewhat open, and ends at the bottom, on one side, with a hair stroke.

“f and ſ. f has a horizontal line above.

“m and w. m is entirely open at the bottom, w is partly closed.

“r and x. x has a little hair stroke below on the left.

“v and y. v is closed, y is somewhat open below, and ends with a hair stroke.”—Noehden’s German Grammar, 2d edit. 12mo. Lond. 1807.

German Types in the British Founderies.

Two-line English.—Thorowgood and Besley.

Great Primer.—Thorowgood and Besley.

Pica.—Caslon and Livermore.

Long Primer.—Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.

Brevier.—Caslon and Livermore. Thorowgood and Besley.

Brevier on Minion body.—Thorowgood and Besley.

Nonpareil.—Thorowgood and Besley.

German Text, ornamented.—V. and J. Figgins.

Great Primer, Brevier on Minion body, and Nonpareil. These matrices are from the foundery of Brestkopff and Hartel, of Leipsig.

German Upper and Lower Case, Roman Character. They are made in one Case.

caption: The German Alphabet

alt: The German Alphabet

credit: William Savage, A Dictionary of the Art of Printing, 1841

caption: Double letters

alt: Double letters

caption: Layout of the German case

alt: Layout of the German case


German paring knife

norm: german paring knife

text: See: PARING KNIFE.


GET IN

norm: get in

text: Matter is got in in a line, page, sheet, or book, if letter be thinner cast than the printed copy the compositor sets by. Or matter is got in if the compositor sets closer: or if he widens his measure; or puts more lines in a page.—M. Also if copy makes less than it was calculated to do, they say, it gets in. See Drive Out.


ghatti gum

norm: ghatti gum

text: A gum obtained from the Indian sumac (Country sumac, or "dhawi," as it is called in India), Anogeissus latifolia, and used as a substitute for GUM ARABIC.

citations: Frank Norman. Howes, Frank Norman. Vegetable tanning materials. London. Butterworth. 1953.


gift binding

norm: gift binding

text: In the usual application, a leather binding produced for presentation, such as a retirement signature book. The term is also applied to that part of an edition run which is bound at the publisher's order for the gift market.

citations: Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


gilder's tip

norm: gilder's tip

text: A camel-hair brush about 3 to 4 inches in width, and used to pick up strips of gold leaf flat on the tips of the hairs. A tip of long hairs is used to pick up whole leaves, while one with short hairs is used for cut pieces of leaf. A tip is not usually needed for metal leaf that is heavier and easier to handle than gold, but one may be necessary for silver leaf, in which case a special tip with double thickness of hairs is used.


gilder's tub

norm: gilder's tub

text: See: RUBBING-OFF CHEST.


gilding

norm: gilding

text:
The art or process of adhering thin metal leaf to a surface, e.g., the leather cover or edges of a book, so as to approximate the effect of solid or inlaid metal. Although the term is applied to the decoration of both covers and edges, it is more accurately used with reference to edges, and the term GOLD TOOLING for covers.

Although the term "gilding" ultimately derives from a word for gold, it also designates the application of other leaf metal to a surface. Gold, silver, and palladium leaf are the most commonly used metals; however, gold is by far predominant. DUTCH GOLD and ALUMINUM LEAF are imitations of precious metals which give inferior effects and are not sufficiently permanent for archival work. On the other hand, they are superior in both effect and permanence to the so-called gold paint made with bronze power, to the silver paints made of aluminum powder, and to the various imitation gold foils made of various combinations of baser metals. See also: GILT EDGES; GILT EXTRA; GILT IN THE ROUND; GILT IN THE SQUARE; GILT MARBLED EDGES; GILT ON LANDSCAPES; ROUGH GILT.

citations: Cockerell, Douglas. Bookbinding, and the care of books; a textbook for bookbinders and librarians. 5th ed. London. Pitman. 1971.

citations: Hannett, John. Bibliopegia; or, the art of bookbinding… London. Simkim, Marshall. 1848.

citations: Hewitt-Bates, James Samuel. Bookbinding. 8th ed. Leicester. Dryad. 1967.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


gilding a la antique

norm: gilding a la antique

text: See: GAUFFERED EDGES.


gilding bench

norm: gilding bench

text: See: FINISHING PRESS.


gilding boards

norm: gilding boards

text: Finishing boards made of hardwood, and similar to BACKING BOARDS, except that the top edge is flat instead of beveled. They are used to secure the book firmly while the edges are being gilt.

citations: Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


gilding powder

norm: gilding powder

text: See: BLOCKING POWDER.


gilding press

norm: gilding press

variant: gilder's press

text: A type of press consisting of two wooden blocks about 6 1/2 inches square and 4 or 5 feet long, fitted with two compression screws operating through brass chucks in each block, and operated by means of a bar inserted in the screw heads. The available DAYLIGHT of the press is generally sufficient to allow the pressing and gilding of the edges of several books at a time.

citations: Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.

citations: Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


gilding press

text: A press made of two square blocks brought together by screws, to hold books for gilding.


Gilt

norm: gilt

text: Is applied to both the edges and to the ornaments in finishing.


Gilt

text: Applies to both the edges and to the ornaments in finishing.


Gilt

text: Applied to ornamental work on covers and also to edges of a book; in the latter case, chiefly used for the top.


gilt after rounding

norm: gilt after rounding

text: See: GILT IN THE ROUND.


gilt all around

norm: gilt all around

text: A term sometimes applied to a book gilded on all three edges.


gilt edges

norm: gilt edges

text:
The edges of a book which have been trimmed, sized, primed with Armenian bole, covered with gold leaf, and burnished. In this process, the leaves of the book are fanned and dusted with French chalk and the book is then clamped in the gilding press.

The edges are scraped and sanded to give as smooth a surface as possible, and the edges are again primed with bole and polished with a burnishing brush. A dilute solution of albumen or gelatin is applied and the gold leaf is laid on. The edges are then glazed with a burnisher, initially through paper and then directly on the edges. Different qualities of paper require slight variations of treatment. In general, the effect of gilt edges is superior if the gilding is done before the book is sewn. See: ROUGH GILT. Following gilding, the edges are sometimes tooled. See: GAUFFERED EDGES.

The gilding of the edges of books probably originated in Italy, at about the same time that gold tooling was introduced in that country, or about 1470. The technique appears to have been in use in England by the 1530s.

Aside from appearance, gilding the edges, or at least the head edge, serves the practical function of protecting the book from the incursion of dust. See also: EDGE GILDING MACHINE,

citations: Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


gilt extra

norm: gilt extra

text: A binding which has more gold tooling than is considered normal. Cf: OVERCHARGED.


gilt in the round

norm: gilt in the round

text: The fore edge of a book gilded after the book is sewn and rounded, giving the fore edge the appearance of a solid gilt surface. Cf: GILT IN THE SQUARE. See also: ROUGH GILT.


gilt in the square

norm: gilt in the square

text: The fore edge of a book gilded after sewing but before rounding. This results in a white edge showing at the first and last sections after the book is subsequently rounded and backed. Cf: GILT IN THE ROUND. See also: ROUGH GILT.


gilt marbled edges

norm: gilt marbled edges

text:
The edges of a book that have been marbled, burnished, sized, gilded, and then burnished again. When it is properly done, the marble can be seen through the gold. In the usual case, however, the marbling is barely perceptible when the book is closed, but appears faintly when the leaves are fanned. This is because the marbling colors penetrate slightly into the paper giving the effect very much like the hidden FORE-EDGE PAINTING, although the two techniques are completely different.

Gilt marbled edges is a French invention of the 17th century, and is usually attributed to (LE) GASCON.

It is sometimes found on English bindings from about the middle of the 18th century, but it was never used extensively.

citations: Nicholson, James B. A manual of the art of bookbinding… Philadelphia. Baird. 1856.


gilt on landscapes

norm: gilt on landscapes

text: A fore-edge decoration consisting of a scene painted on the fore edge, which is then gilded and burnished. Only the gilt edge is seen until the leaves are fanned, whereupon the painting may be seen beneath the gold. The name probably derives from the fact that most of these fore-edge paintings are of landscape scenes. The practice of gilding on landscapes dates from the second half of the 18th century. See also: EDWARDS OF HALIFAX; GILT MARBLED EDGES; FORE-EDGE PAINTING.

citations: Crane, W. J. E. Bookbinding for amateurs…New York. Scribner. 1903.

citations: Prideaux, Sarah Treverbian. An historical sketch of bookbinding. London. Lawrence & Bullen. 1893.


gilt on red

norm: gilt on red

text: See: RED UNDER GOLD EDGES.


gilt on the rough

norm: gilt on the rough

text: See: ROUGH GILT.


gilt solid

norm: gilt solid

text: See: GILT IN THE ROUND.


gilt top

norm: gilt top

text: See: TOP EDGE GILT.


gilt top

text: Books with the top edges cut and gilded. This prevents their being soiled by the dust that may collect on them.


girdle book

norm: girdle book

text:
See illustration</> Girdle book. Breviarum, manuscript on paper, written in Southern Germany, probably in the monastery of Kastl, near Nürnberg, in the year 1454. Spencer Collection MS 39, New York Public Library (10.4 cm. by 7.5 cm.)

A book which has an extra protective covering of soft leather made in such a manner that the book can be hung from the girdle or habit cord of a cleric and swung upward for reading while still attached to the girdle or cord. Doeskin and deerskin were frequently employed for this type of binding, which was used in the middle ages and early Renaissance, especially in Germany. Devotional books or didactic works, or professional reference books, e.g., law books, were most often bound in this manner, and the bindings were almost quite unpretentious. Very elegant bindings, however, were produced in velvet and brocade, to protect illuminated prayer books. Few intact girdle books have survived, as the overlapping leather was usually cut off for reuse when the need for protection had passed. Also called "utilitarian protective bindings."

citations: Johnson, Pauline. Creative bookbinding. Seattle. University of Washington Press. 1963.


girdle calendar

norm: girdle calendar

text: A small medieval folding calendar, so made that it could be suspended from the girdle or habit cord of a cleric, or from the belt. Many had covers of stiff vellum sheathed in velvet, sometimes overcast at the edges with silk thread, and ornamented with balls and tassles. Such calendars generally showed the saints' days and other religious observances for each month, as well as various astrological tables. They were generally written on fold-out leaves of vellum.


GIRTHS

norm: girths

text:
Are thongs of leather, cut out of the back of an horse hide, or a bull’s hide, sometimes an hog’s hide. They are about an inch and an half, or an inch and three quarters broad. Two of them are used to carry the carriage out and in.—M. They are sometimes made of Girthweb.

Mr. T. C. Hansard, in his patent for the improvement of presses, &c., enumerates “Girths,” of which he says,—“The girths I form of lines made of any close-formed strong material or substance, but round or narrow, and I particularly prefer cat-gut of about one inch in circumference. Such lines I arrange in pairs, one pair to run the table in, the other pair to run it out; applying them to the wheel after the manner of leather or web girths; except that such lines I place with a small degree of obliquity from either end of the table to the wheel, so that in winding round no one coil shall touch or interfere with the other, but take a spiral direction, one pair giving place by being wound off the wheel as the table is run in or out, to the other pair, which by being then wound round the wheel, causes the table to traverse in the given direction. By these means the rounce or handle will be, in every position or turn of the wheel, equally tight, and no friction or adhesion of the lines can ever take place.”

Girth Wheel, or Drum. See Wheel.

Giving a Pelt Exercise. See Exercising the Pelt.


GIVING OUT PAPER

norm: giving out paper

text:
When the warehouseman delivers paper to the pressmen, or to the person appointed to wet it, for printing on, it is said, he has given out paper for such a job, or such a sheet of a work.

Paper, for printing on, is received in three different ways from the stationer.

The first and most general way is what is termed Perfect Paper; that is, each ream consists of twenty-one quires and a half, making 516 sheets, which enables the printer to deliver full count, and allows for spoiling sheets, which unavoidably happens in wetting, in printing-off, and in the warehouse department.

The second is Imperfect Paper; that is, each ream consists of twenty good quires, (termed inside quires,) making 480 sheets; but it is given out to wet for bookwork as perfect paper.

The third is News Paper, which consists of twenty quires of twenty-five sheets each to the ream, making 500 sheets.

Newspaper stamps are always received, given out to wet, and delivered, by the net number, and require great care on the part of the warehouseman and pressmen to prevent waste, as the master printer is responsible for the deficiency.

Paper with outside quires is very rarely sent in to the printer; when it does happen, the warehouseman should look over the outside quires, take out the torn and damaged sheets, and give out as perfect paper: but, perhaps, the best way is to put aside these quires, and return them to the employer, as every sheet is more or less damaged.

The following Tables will be found useful, as they will enable the warehouseman to give out paper with facility and correctness for bookwork, and for jobs, where the numbers are irregular and the sizes vary; and more particularly so, as they include both perfect and imperfect paper.

Those for bookwork are arranged for the regular quantity of perfect paper, commencing with so low a number as 12, and proceeding up to 10,000.

Those for jobs include the same numbers, and are so arranged as to specify the quantity of paper to a sheet for each number, as I did not think it necessary to calculate them to the fractional part of a sheet: thus some of them are exact, and others have a surplus, which in some instances is large where there are many on a sheet; but as jobs are generally delivered without any surplus, I have thought it best to give the quantity of paper that will make the nearest specific number, so that it shall not be less, and leave the surplus to the discretion of the warehouseman, or to the custom of the house.

Where the numbers are small in bookwork, the quantity of paper given out is greater in proportion than when the numbers are larger; of course a ream will not hold out in printing five sheets of one hundred copies each, and still less in smaller numbers; for each sheet at press will require a tympan sheet; and it is more than probable that one or two more will be spoiled in making ready; and in the warehouse department a file copy must always be preserved. I notice this to remind the warehouseman to make a proper allowance in his paper account, otherwise it will appear deficient, when in reality it is not.

TABLES—Showing the proper Quantity of Paper to be given out for any Number from 12 to 10,000, both Perfect and Imperfect.

FRACTIONAL PARTS

GOOD COLOUR.

Sheet printed neither too black nor too white—M.


glacial acetic acid

norm: glacial acetic acid

text: A pure form of ACETIC ACID. It is a crystalline, corrosive substance that is miscible with water and alcohol. In solution it is a pungent, hygroscopic liquid and a good solvent.


glacé goat

norm: glacé goat

variant: glazed kid

text: A vegetable or chrome tanned leather having a bright, smooth, glossy or glass-like grain finish obtained, according to the type of leather, by glazing, plating, ironing, or polishing. On the Continent of Europe, glace is a leather prepared by tawing the skin with a mixture of alum, salt, flour, and egg yolk. Glace leathers are sometimes used in bookbinding for title labels on a contrasting leather.

citations: Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.

citations: Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


glair

norm: glair

variant: glaire

text:
The preparation used to secure leaf metal to the covering material or edges of a book. It consists basically of egg white and vinegar, or, for the edges of a book, egg white and water. It may also be purchased in dry form (dry ALBUMEN) and then mixed with vinegar or water. Glair must have the property (and be of the quality) of melting immediately upon the application of heat and then setting quickly upon the removal of heat, so that the impression of the heated letter or finishing tool will melt the glair to permit it to hold the leaf solidly to the surface when the tool is removed.

Two methods of applying glair are generally employed. If the slight gloss produced by the glair is not objectionable, the glair may be sponged over the entire surface to be tooled, and would in any case be applied over the entire edge of the book; however, if the gloss is objectionable, the design and/or lettering are tooled in blind and the glair is then applied to the blind impressions with a GILDER'S TIP. See also: BLOCKING POWDER; SHELLAC SIZE.

citations: U.S. Government Printing Office. Theory and practice of bookbinding. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962.


glair

text: The white of eggs beaten up and used in finishing and gilding the edges of the leaves.


glair brush

norm: glair brush

text: An artists "ground" brush, 3/4 inch wide, and with soft bristles set in rubber and used in applying glair to the edges of a book to be gilded.

citations: Burdett, Eric. The craft of bookbinding; a practical handbook. London. Davis & Charles. 1975.


glair pencil

norm: glair pencil

text: A small brush, e.g., camel's hair brush, used to pencil glair directly into the blinded in impressions before laying on the gold leaf.


GLAIRE

norm: glaire

text: The white of eggs beaten up.


GLAIRE

text: white of eggs beaten up, and used in finishing and edge gilding.


glairing in

norm: glairing in

text: The process of applying GLAIR over the lettering or design that has been blinded in.

citations: Diehl, Edith. Bookbinding; its background and technique. New York. Rinehart. 1946. 2 vol.


glass fibers

norm: glass fibers

text: One of the more unusual man-made fibers being used commercially in the manufacture of special papers, although not at this time being used to make printing papers. Glass fibers are inert, or insensitive, to most external influences, and, in addition, are vermin proof, do not absorb moisture, or burn. Because of the physical nature of these fibers, the properties of glass fiber papers are unique and different from those of all cellulose papers; however, they do not bond together as do cellulose fibers, and must, therefore, be used in mixtures with cellulose fibers, or bonded with synthetic resins. The two basic types of glass fibers are the drawn glass filaments and the blown glass fibers.

citations: The enemies of books. London. Stock. 1896.


glass paper

norm: glass paper

text: 1. A strong paper faced with powdered glass on one side and used in abrading or smoothing surfaces such as wood or leather, or to remove surface marks from paper. It is sometimes called sandpaper, although sandpaper is actually faced with sand or natural flint and not glass. 2. A paper produced from GLASS FIBERS.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. The restoration of leather bindings. Chicago. American Library Association. (A. L. A. Library Technology Project, LTP publication no. 18). 1972.


glass transition temperature

norm: glass transition temperature

text: That temperature at which an adhesive loses its flexibility and becomes hard, inflexible, and "glasslike." An adhesive which reaches the "glass transition temperature" is subject to failure if flexed. Glass transition temperatures for adhesives vary greatly, from 105° C. (polymethyl methacrylate) to well below 0 ° C. If flexibility is required of the adhesive, the glass transition temperature can be lowered, either by means of plasticizers, or a polymer with a naturally low glass transition temperature.


glassine paper

norm: glassine paper

text: A supercalendered paper manufactured principally from chemical wood pulps which have been beaten to secure a high degree of stock hydration. Glassine paper is grease resistant, has a high resistance to the passage of air, and is almost impervious to the passage of water vapor. It is also smooth and transparent, or semi-transparent. It is made in white and various colors, and may also be made opaque by the addition of fillers. Basis weights range from 12 to 90 pounds (24 X 36—500), with the ordinary range being from 15 to 40 pounds. Glassine tape, which is the paper backed, with a water-soluble adhesive, is sometimes used to repair torn book leaves, although it will eventually turn yellow and may damage the paper. It is also used in lieu of cellulose acetate in the SUNDEX PROCESS of lamination.

citations: American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

citations: Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957

citations: Sutermeister, Edwin. The story of papermaking. Boston. Warren. 1954.


glassy layer

norm: glassy layer

text: The dense fibrous structure found in the butt or SHELL area of horsehide.


glazed

norm: glazed

text: 1. A paper having a high gloss or polish. The gloss is applied to the paper either during manufacture or afterwards, by such means as calendering, friction glazing, plating, etc. Glazed papers are used for book and cover papers, and the like. 2. Any surface finished with a high gloss, such as cloth, leather, or paper. See also: GLACÉ; GLAZED BOARD; GLAZING.


glazed board

norm: glazed board

text: A MILLBOARD, or other type of board, that has been given a very smooth finish on the calenders. It was used in library binding when standing or hydraulic presses were used for the final pressing of books, its smoothness preventing it from imparting any markings to the covers of the books being pressed.

citations: Porte, Roy Trewin. Dictionary of printing terms. 4th ed. Salt Lake City. Porte. 1941.


glazed leather

norm: glazed leather

text: See: GLACÉ.


glazed morocco

norm: glazed morocco

text: A MOROCCO leather which has had its grain flattened by a calendering process, such as GLAZING, as distinguished from CRUSHED MOROCCO.


glazing

norm: glazing

text: The process of producing a bright, glossy, or glasslike finish on leather, paper, board, marbled or decorated papers, etc. Paper glazing may be done by means of calendering, or by applying wax over the surface of the paper and then passing heated iron over it. Leather is glazed, on the grain side, by subjecting it to the action of a non-rotating solid glass (or agate or other suitable material) cylinder drawn across the grain under very high pressure.

citations: Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


gloss

norm: gloss

variant: glossiness

text: The surface characteristic of a material which enables it to reflect light specularly and which causes it to appear shiny or lustrous. Gloss is measured at various angles of illumination, and, although it is subjective in nature, it is clearly associated with the light reflecting properties of a surface.


gloster marble

norm: gloster marble

text: A marble pattern very similar to the ANTIQUE MARBLE, except that instead of the spot being a flat color, i.e., a color mixed with gall and water alone, it calls for a blue stormont with no white beaten on afterward.

citations: Woolnough, Charles W. The whole art of marbling as applied to paper, book edges…Rev. ed. London. Bell. 1881.


glucose

norm: glucose

text: A crystalline carbohydrate (C6H12O6) soluble in water, used as a substitute for the more expensive glycerine (glycerol) as a plasticizer for glue, and in making GLUCOSE-GLYCOL PASTE. See also: SORBITOL.


glucose-glycol paste

norm: glucose-glycol paste

text: A paste containing glucose, in the form of corn syrup, and diethylene glycol (C6H14O3), in the proportions of 35% original water, 10% diethylene glycol, 0.1% beta naphthol, 0.3% alum, 20% glucose, 19.6% flour, and 15% water from condensation of steam. The advantages of this paste are stated to be that it is suitable for use on pyroxylin impregnated book cloth and effectively reduces warpage of book covers.


glue

norm: glue

text:
An adhesive consisting of organic colloids of a complex protein structure obtained from animal materials such as bones and hides in meat packing and tanning industries. Glue contains two groups of proteins: chondrin, which accounts for its adhesive strength, and glutin, which contributes jelling strength.

Animal glue is a protein derived from the simple hydrolysis of collagen, which is the principal protein constituent of animal hide, connective tissue and bones. Collagen, animal glue, and gelatin are very closely related as to protein and chemical composition. Gelatin is considered to be hydrolized collagen: C102H149O38N31 + H2O = C102H151O39N31 which gives an approximate chemical composition for glue of 51.29% carbon, 6.39% hydrogen, 24.13% oxygen, and 18.19% nitrogen. There may be minor variations in the composition of collagens from different sources, as well as in the composition of animal glues imparted by variations in processing techniques; however, the composition of glues and gelatins having widely varying case histories are still very similar.

As a protein, animal glue is essentially composed of polyamides of certain alpha-amino acids. It is believed that these acids are not present in glue in the free state, but rather as residues which are joined together by the elimination of water to form long polypeptide chains.

Glue is a polydisperse system containing mixtures of similar molecules of widely differing molecular weights. Because so wide a range of molecular weights is present, the molecular weight of glue is always an average, ranging from 20,000 to 250,000.

Hide and bone glues make up the two major types of animal glue. Hide glue, which is by far the superior of the two, yields a fairly neutral pH in solution, usually in the range of 6.5 to 7.4, although wider variations are possible. Bone glue is generally acidic, having pH values of 5.8 to 6.3. A glue having a high acidity absorbs less water and tends to set more slowly than a glue having low acidity. A glue having a pH greater than 7.0 tends to foam, and has a shorter shelf life than a glue that is slightly acidic.

Animal glues are soluble only in water, and are insoluble in oils, waxes, organic solvents, and absolute alcohol; however, they may be emulsified in water-oil or oil-water systems under proper conditions. One of the more interesting properties of animal glue solutions is their ability to pass from a liquid to a jelled state upon cooling, and then revert to the liquid state upon re-heating.

The important properties of glue include its jelly strength or consistency (gel strength), viscosity, melting point, adhesive strength, tensile strength or elasticity, optical rotation, swelling capacity, rate of setting, foaming characteristics, reactions to grease (whether acid or alkaline), as well as appearance, odor, color and keeping characteristics. Of these, gell strength and viscosity are most often used for determining the grade of a particular glue.

Regardless of the source of the protein, the glue manufacturing process consists essentially of washing the stock, crushing or shredding the bones or hides, soaking in a lime solution to eliminate hair and flesh, boiling to extract the gelatinous material, gelling, and, finally, drying. The resulting hard, brittle sheets of glue are then broken into pieces or flakes, or ground into powder.

Glue as such is much too brittle for use in bookbinding; therefore a plasticizer, such as glycerin, or a less expensive substitute such as SORBITOL, often combined with glycols and tackifiers, are added to improve elasticity and resilience. These so-called flexible glues are usually prepared from high quality grades of hide glue, with the ratio of plasticizer(s) to dry glue controlling the degree of flexibility that is imparted. In addition, glue, being an organic material, is susceptible to mold; consequently preservatives, such as beta naphthol, or the safer phenols, e.g., p-phenyl phenol, are added to prevent mold and bacterial growth. Deodorants, such as terpinol, are also employed in commercial glues.

The wide acceptance of glue as an adhesive stems from its unique ability to deposit a tacky viscous film from a warm water solution, which, upon cooling a few degrees, passes into a firm jelly state producing an immediate, moderately strong initial bond. Subsequent drying provides a permanent, strong, and resilient bond.

The use of glue as an adhesive dates from earliest recorded times. Whoever discovered that a strong adhesive could be produced by cooking pieces of animal hide, or perhaps bone, in water has never been ascertained, but archeological discoveries indicate that the

Egyptians used glue more than 4,000 years ago. The practical manufacture of glue can be traced back directly to 1690 in the Netherlands. Shortly thereafter, or about 1700, the English began making glue and established its manufacture as a permanent industry. Elijah Upjohn is considered by some authorities to have been the first to manufacture glue in the United States, in 1808.

In addition to its use as an adhesive in bookbinding, glue is also used for gumming, for tub-sizing paper, and as a general adhesive in papermaking.

The term "glue" is sometimes used loosely in a general sense as synonymous with "adhesive."

citations: Alexander, Jerome. Glue and gelatin. New York. Chemical Catalog Co. (American Chemical Society, monograph series). 1923.

citations: Cunha, George Daniel Martin. Conservation of library materials. Metuchen, N.J. Scarecrow. 1967.

citations: Kantrowitz, Morris S., and others. Bindery glues. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. (GPO-PIA joint research bulletin, B-3). 1948.

citations: Kantrowitz, Morris S., and others. Flexible glues for bookbinding. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. (Technical bulletin, no. 24). 1941.

citations: Katz, Irving. Adhesive materials, their properties and usage. Long Beach, Calif. Foster. 1971.

citations: Klinefelter, Lee Miller. Bookbinding made easy. Rev. ed. Milwaukee. Bruce. 1960.

citations: McGuire, Edward Patrick. American adhesive index. Mountainside, N. J. Padric. 1962.

citations: Mayer, Ralph. A dictionary of art terms and techniques. New York. Crowell. 1969.

citations: Skeist, Irving. Handbook of adhesives. New York. Reinhold. 1962.


glue brush

norm: glue brush

text: A large, circular-shaped brush with long, heavy bristles set in rubber or a composition, and held by a ferrule; it is used for spreading glue over relatively large surfaces. Glue brushes range in diameter from about 1 3/4 to 2 1/2 inches.

citations: Burdett, Eric. The craft of bookbinding; a practical handbook. London. Davis & Charles. 1975.

citations: Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


glue line.

norm: glue line.

text: The "line" at which the paper and adhesive meet in an adhesive binding. The fibers of the paper flex at the "glue line," and may work their way loose at this point, regardless of the characteristics of the adhesive that is used.


glue pot

norm: glue pot

text: A container, frequently made of copper and usually of a double boiler construction, in which glue is melted and kept at the proper temperature, which is in the range of 120 to 150° F. It is heated by gas, or, more often today, by electricity, either through a water jacket, or directly through insulated walls. It is usually controlled by a thermostat if heated by electricity. Control of temperature is important, as overheating of animal glue results in a loss of gell strength.

citations: Johnson, Pauline. Creative bookbinding. Seattle. University of Washington Press. 1963.


glue size

norm: glue size

text: A size made of glue and soap mixed in water, in the proportions of 1 part glue, 1 part soap, and 30 parts water. It is used for resizing papers, and also in sizing endpapers and other sheets following marbling or coloring.


gluing up

norm: gluing up

variant: gluing off

text:
1. The process of applying glue, or other adhesive, to the spine of a book following sewing. In edition binding, gluing up is a machine operation, but in library and hand binding it is generally done by hand. Usually, one of the polyvinyl adhesives, e.g., polyvinyl acetate, or a hot, flexible animal glue, or even a hot-melt adhesive is used. The major purpose of gluing up is to put the spine of the book in the proper flexible condition for the molding operations of rounding and backing. As these two processes were not introduced into bookbinding until the early part of the 16th century, gluing up was not done before that time.

There are advantages in using a relatively slow drying adhesive in gluing up, as such an adhesive will remain tacky while the spine is shaped and the shoulders are set.

2. The operation of gluing the cloth or paper used for making covers or cases.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.

citations: Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.


glycerol

norm: glycerol

variant: glycerin

text: A sweet, colorless, syrupy, hygroscopic trihydroxy alcohol (C3H5(OH)3), that occurs combined as glycerides, and is used as a hygroscopic agent in glue (mainly animal glues) to enable it to remain relatively soft and flexible. Because it is hygroscopic, glycerol can actually absorb so much moisture that mold growths can develop unless an antiseptic is added along with the softening agent. The high cost of glycerol has led to the substitution of other softening agents, such as SORBITOL and diethylene glycol.

citations: U.S. Government Printing Office. Theory and practice of bookbinding. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962.


go home

norm: go home

text: A term sometimes applied to the proper and adequate adhesion of the PASTEDOWN in the joint of a cased book.

citations: Crane, W. J. E. Bookbinding for amateurs…New York. Scribner. 1903.


GO UP THE FORM

norm: go up the form

text: Beating from the hither towards the farther side, is in pressmen’s phrase called, “<i>Going up the Form</i>.”—M.


goat skiver

norm: goat skiver

text: The grain split of a goatskin. See: SKIVER. See also: BUFFING (1); FLESHER.


goat vellum

norm: goat vellum

text: A "vellum" made from goatskin. Although VELLUM can be, and has been, produced from virtually every type of (relatively small) skin, it is traditionally made from the skin of a calf.

citations: Harrison, T. The bookbinding craft and industry; an outline of its history, development, and technique. London. Pitman. 1926.