fiber

norm: fiber

text:
1. A small, slender tube which is the unit cell of vegetable growth and the basic unit of paper pulps. Fibers are sometimes considered to be of two classes, i.e., bast and wood, but they are more appropriately designated by reference to the tissue or region in which they occur. e.g., cortical fibers, pericyclic fibers, phloem fibers, wood fibers, leaf fibers, etc. Other types of fiber, such as mineral, animal and synthetic, are also used to a certain extent in paper manufacture.

The longest natural fibers normally encountered in papers are about one fourth of an inch in length and the shortest about one-sixteenth of an inch. Fibers are generally about 100 times longer than they are wide, although some fibers, such as cotton, have a length to diameter ratio of more than 1,000 to 1. The walls of all fibers are composed of small strands called FIBRILS.

Chemically the fibrils are composed of a number of cellulose chains. Other chemical components in fibers other than cellulose include hemicelluloses and lignin.

The physical properties of length, diameter, wall thickness, and FINES content are the most significant in determining the characteristics of paper made from natural fibers. The approximate relationships between fiber characteristics and paper properties are:

Property of

the Paper:          Increased by:           Decreased by:

tensile strength    long fiber              large diameter

stretch             long fiber              thick cell wall

tearing resistance  long fiber,

thick cell wall

folding endurance   long fiber              thick cell wall

opacity             thick cell wall,        long fiber

high fines content

bulk                long fiber,

thick cell wall

porosity            long fiber,             large diameter

thick cell wall

formation           thick cell wall,        long fiber

high fines,

large diameter

The chemical characteristics also have a significant effect on the properties of the paper. The length of the CELLULOSE CHAIN, for example, which is the basic unit in a fiber, contributes greatly to the strength of the fiber. If these chains are naturally short, or have been shortened either by chemical or mechanical treatment or influences, the strength of the fibers will be naturally lower or else reduced; therefore the paper will be weaker. In addition, the paper loses strength if the cellulose chains are shortened due to chemical action subsequent to manufacture of the paper.

Paper pulps that contain a high degree of hemicelluloses are easy to refine, have good bonding strength and low tearing resistance, and good RATTLE.

Excessive bleaching of the fibrous stock, especially when done with strong caustic extractions, results in removal of hemicelluloses. The fibers then have greater flexibility but do not bond together effectively, resulting in a paper that is soft and absorbent.

Unbleached paper pulps tend to contain more lignin than is found in bleached pulps. The presence of lignin results in stiffer, tougher fibers which do not collapse against each other very well, resulting in fewer interfiber bonds being formed during manufacture. Bleached fibers, on the other hand, conform better and afford greater contact between fibers, resulting in a stronger paper. While bleached fibers conform better than unbleached, improper bleaching may result in the loss of hemicelluloses and damage to the cellulose chains. 2. The complex proteinaceous structure, composed of ropelike bundles of fibrils organized in long, wavy bundles that vary in diameter from approximately 1 to 20 microns. These proteinaceous fibers make up the principal constituent of COLLAGEN.

citations: American Society for Testing and Materials. Committee D-6 on paper and paper products. Paper and paperboard; characteristics, nomenclature, and significance of tests. 3rd ed. Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials. (Special technical publication 60B). 1963.

citations: Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.

citations: Sutermeister, Edwin. Chemistry of pulp and pa per making. 3rd ed. New York. Wiley. 1941.

citations: Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


fiber boards

norm: fiber boards

kind: definition

letter: F

letter_raw: F

text: 1. Pressing boards made up of laminated sheets of heavily pressed fiber. 2. Pressing boards made of hard wood that have flanges of hard pressed fiber instead of brass or other metal.

siglum: RE

author: Roberts, Matt T.; Etherington, Don

work: Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology

rights: US Government publication (Library of Congress), published openly in electronic edition by CoOL. Not a Gutenberg/pre-1930 public-domain text -- verify rights before reprinting rather than quoting.

rights_tier: us-government-flagged


fiber composition

norm: fiber composition

text: The various types of fibers making up a sheet of paper or board, generally expressed in percentages. Fiber physiology and various staining methods are generally used to determine fiber composition.

citations: American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.


fiber orientation

norm: fiber orientation

text: The direction in which the greater proportion of the fibers of a paper have their larger dimension, which is their length. Handmade papers have the least degree of lengthwise orientation due to the multiple shaking of the mold when it is lifted from the vat, which causes the fibers to settle in various directions. Machine-made papers have the greater proportion of their fibers oriented in the longer or MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper; however, some Fourdrinier papermaking machines are equipped with shaking wires that cause more fibers to shift away from the direction of movement of the wire.

citations: Harrop, Dorothy. Modern book production. London. Bingley. 1968.

citations: Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.


fiberize

norm: fiberize

text: A process used to reduce wood chips, reclaimed paper stock, dry broke, and other papermaking fibrous materials to individual fibers. The equipment used for this includes disc mills, conical refiners, etc. Sometimes the materials are first softened with water or steam, or by chemical treatment before the mechanical action.

citations: Crown Zellerbach Corp. Making pulp and paper. San Francisco. Crown Zellerbach Corp. 1958. 1 vol.


fibrilae

norm: fibrilae

text: See: FIBRILS.


fibrillation

norm: fibrillation

text: The process of loosening the threadlike elements known as FIBRILS from the wall of the fiber, thus providing greater surface area for the formation of fiber-to-fiber bonds. Also called "brushing out"


fibrils

norm: fibrils

text: The fine, threadlike elements that make up the structure of fibers of certain natural and synthetic materials and which are considered to be made up ultimately of long-chain molecules oriented in a bundle in one direction. In vegetable fibers they are the threadlike elements of the wall of the native cellulose fiber, consisting of still finer microscopic microfibrils. In animal fibers they are the long proteinaceous filaments consisting of bundles of submicroscopic micelles, which in turn are made up of very long molecules of collagen twisted together. Fibrils are the smallest physical unit encountered in fibers; at this point the physical area ends and the chemical area begins.

citations: Reed, Ronald. Ancient skin, parchments and leathers. London. Seminar Press. 1972.


fibroblasts

norm: fibroblasts

text: Cellular structures which are thought to participate in the formation of the fibers of connective tissue in animals, i.e., FIBRILS, and which may also be responsible for the formation of ground substance.

citations: Bailey, Frederick T. Textbook on histology. 16th ed. Ed. by Wilfred M. Copenhaven, and others. Baltimore. Williams & Wilkins. 1971.

citations: O'Flaherty, Fred, and others, eds. The chemistry and technology of leather. New York. Reinhold. (American Chemical Society monograph series, no. 134. 1956-65. 4 vol.


fiddle stitching

norm: fiddle stitching

variant: fiddling

text: A term applied somewhat inaccurately to a method of lacing, rather than stitching, executed by winding thread or cord in and around v-shaped cleats of slots sawn at regular intervals in the spine of the gathered sections. See also: SMYTH-CLEAT SEWING.

citations: American Library Association. Editorial Committee. Subcommittee on library terminology. A. L. A. glossary of library terms, with a selection of terms in related fields. Compiled by Elizabeth H. Thompson. Chicago. American Library Association. 1943.

citations: Clough, Eric A. Bookbinding for librarians. London. Association of Assistant Librarians. 1957.


filigree doublures

norm: filigree doublures

text: A DOUBLURE (1) consisting of ornamental openwork of an intricate design, frequently of hairlike arabesques, intricate backgrounds of flowering vines with delicate spiraling stems, cut from leather and laid over a contrasting background. See also: ONLAY,

citations: Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore. The history of bookbinding 525-1950 A.D. Compiled by Dorothy Miner. Baltimore. Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery. 1957.


fill

norm: fill

variant: filling

text: 1. The heavy paper pasted to the insides of the boards within the edges of the turn-ins. See also: FILLING IN (1). 2. The paper used to fill out albums bound with stubs so as to make the book of equal thickness from fore edge to spine for purposes of trimming, casing-in, etc. 3. The material used to fill a fabric. See: BOOK CLOTH; BUCKRAM 4. See: FENCE (2). 5. See: SPINE LINING (1). 6. See: LOADING (2). 7. See: WEFT. , 341)

citations: Porte, Roy Trewin. Dictionary of printing terms. 4th ed. Salt Lake City. Porte. 1941.


filled

norm: filled

text: A BOOK CLOTH treated with a chemical compound which fills the interstices and/or covers the fibers of the fabric to give it body, color or other desirable physical or chemical characteristics.

citations: Cunha, George Daniel Martin. Conservation of library materials. Metuchen, N.J. Scarecrow. 1967.


filler

norm: filler

text: 1. A material, such as acrylic, starch or pyroxylin, used to fill the interstices of a base fabric. The principal characteristics desired include cheapness, flexibility, water resistance, durability, printability, mold and fungi resistance, and resistance to insects and other vermin. See also: BOOK CLOTH; BUCKRAM. 2. Usually, a non-fibrous material added to the fiber furnish of paper. The major characteristics desired include cheapness, opacity, printability, color, and flatness. See also: LOADING (2). 3. The inner ply or plies of a board made up of multiple layers. 4. An ornamented outline or border in gold or color. 5. A relatively nonadhesive substance. such as clay, diatomaceous earth, walnut shell flour, etc., used to extend an adhesive or to provide increased bulk. and/or to improve its working properties, strength, permanence, or other characteristics. See a1so: BINDER (4); EXTENDER (1). 6. See: PADDING (t).

citations: Atkins, J. Howard. Tying the future to a thread. Medford, Mass. Oversewing Machine Co. of America. 1968.

citations: Battista, Orlando A. Synthetic fibers in papermaking. New York. Interscience. 1964.

citations: Skeist, Irving. Handbook of adhesives. New York. Reinhold. 1962.

citations: Warren (S. D.) Co. Boston. Facts and views of papermaking at S. D. Warren Company. Boston. S. D. Warren Co. 1965.


filler clay

norm: filler clay

text: A type of CLAY incorporated into the papermaking furnish before sheet formation. Its purpose is to fill the voids between the paper fibers so as to improve printability, opacity, brightness. etc. Filler clays, such as KAOLIN, may be of a larger particle size than those clays used as COATING CLAY.


fillet

norm: fillet

text:
See illustration</> 1. A wheel-shaped finishing tool having one or more raised bands on its circumference. It is used to impress a line or parallel lines on the covering material of a book, usually one bound in leather. The lines may be continuous or the fillets may have a wedge-shaped gap in the circumference to facilitate starting and stopping lines and also to enable lines to be joined evenly at corners.

It is not known when the fillet first came into use. Bindings of the 12th century, and even earlier, have impressed lines that could have been made with a fillet, but they may also have been impressed with a pallet, or similar tool, dragged across the leather rather than rolled. It is argued that it probably did not precede the roll, which was introduced in about 1470. by any great length of time, because once a wheel-type tool was introduced, it would soon be patterned. It is sometimes called a "roulette" in the United States.

2. The plain line or lines impressed on a book cover. The so-called French fillet is a triple fillet (always in gold) having unevenly spaced lines. (69, 161. 172, 236, 335)

citations: Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.

citations: Horne, Herbert Percy. The binding of books; an essay in the history of gold-tooled bindings. 2nd ed. New York. Haskell House. 1970.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.

citations: Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


fillet

text: The cylindrical ornament used in finishing upon which simple lines are engraved.

siglum: MAB

author: Nicholson, James B.

work: A Manual of the Art of Bookbinding

rights: Public domain (Project Gutenberg, pre-1930 text)

rights_tier: public-domain


fillet

text: A cylindrical tool used in finishing, upon which a line or lines are engraved.

siglum: BIB

author: Sabin, Joseph

work: Bib-li-op-e-gis-tic: Pertaining to the Art of Binding Books


fillet

text: A cylindrical tool upon which a line, lines, or figures are engraved. Used in finishing.

siglum: NBL

author: Bailey, Arthur L.

work: Notes on Bookbinding for Libraries


fillet pad

norm: fillet pad

text: A mechanical device which unwinds ribbon gold (leaf) when gilding by means of a fillet or roll.

citations: Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


fillet rolls

norm: fillet rolls

text: Finishing tools consisting of brass rolls approximately 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 inches in diameter, with 1, 2, or 3 lines on the circumference. See also: FILLET (1).


filling

norm: filling

text: See: WEFT; PADDING (1).


filling in

norm: filling in

text: 1. The operation of pasting heavy paper to the insides of the boards of a book within the turn-ins of the covering material. The purpose of filling in is to prevent the thickness of the turn-ins from being noticeable under the board papers. Filling in is done only in craft bookbinding. 2. A fault in blocking, printing, etc., in which the spaces in types, or the spaces between the dots of a halftone block, fill with gold, coloring, or ink. In blocking it may be caused by worn or damaged type, or by a type holder that is too hot; in printing, it may be caused by too much ink, or an ink that is unsuitable for the job, by the form being too high, the rollers being set incorrectly, or by the use of an unsuitable paper, especially one which fluffs.

citations: Corderoy, John. Bookbinding for beginners. New York. Watson-Guptill. 1967.

citations: Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.

citations: Hewitt-Bates, James Samuel. Bookbinding. 8th ed. Leicester. Dryad. 1967.


film forming

norm: film forming

text: That property of an adhesive which enables it to cast a continuous dimensionally stable film. Film forming also refers to the relative strength of the cast adhesive film. Adhesives with good film forming characteristics are those which tend to deposit more uniform films of high structural strength.

citations: McGuire, Edward Patrick. American adhesive index. Mountainside, N. J. Padric. 1962.


fine paper copy

norm: fine paper copy

text: A book printed on paper of a superior quality (which often but not always is larger in size) than the balance of the edition, which is printed on ordinary paper.


FINE PRESSWORK

norm: fine presswork

text:
This is the technical term for presswork of superior quality; it is in some measure indefinite, for, as presswork is paid a certain price for a given number, and the price advances according to the time and care bestowed on it, that for which the lowest price is paid is termed common work, and after the price has advanced about one half in addition, it is styled fine work; although it may advance gradually to six times the lowest price, or more, it is still called fine work.

In aiming at excellence in printing, it will be found that Presswork deserves particular consideration, as a part on which the beauty of a book so much depends.

It will be necessary, in the first instance, to endeavour to define more particularly what is meant by the term Fine Presswork, for except this be understood, we shall come to no satisfactory conclusion, as workmen vary in their opinions respecting it, and frequently produce sheets of different shades of colour in the same volume, when it is done at different presses, and all under the name of the finest work; and when the same person either actually prints the whole, or superintends it, the work will be executed according to his criterion, without any fixed rule whereby to decide; thus one man shall produce the finest work, according to his opinion, of a pale grey colour, while another will produce it so black and surcharged with colour, that if the ink be not of a very good quality, it will not only smear, but the paper at the edges of the letters, nay, even the whole page, will be tinged with the oil which separates from the colouring matter of the ink, to the entire destruction of all beauty of workmanship.

Fine Presswork is the art of printing perfect impressions from the surface of engravings in relief.

By obtaining perfect impressions, I would be understood that the subject transferred to paper should be an impression from the surface and the surface only of the engraved lines, of such a tone as to produce all the effect of which the subject is capable, without either superfluity or deficiency of colour.

Having thus defined my meaning of the term Fine Presswork, I shall speak of the means by which it is to be produced, which may be of use to those who have not had opportunities of printing splendid books.

The press ought to be in the best condition, otherwise there will be no certainty of the impression being equal, except with great trouble and loss of time. The joints of the tympan should not have any play; if they have, it will affect the register, which being out disfigures the appearance of the book; it also causes a great risk of producing slurs and doubles: the most certain way of having them without play is to construct them on centres, so that if they should work a little loose, they can at any time, with the greatest ease, be tightened by means of the screws on which the centres are formed.

The parchments on the tympans should be thin, and of a uniform thickness, and stretched on the tympans so as not to be flaccid. It is said that the French printers in their finest works used silk on the tympans, on account of its thinness, its smoothness, and uniformity.

The face of the platen ought to be a true plane, and parallel to the press stone, or table. It will be found in practice that an iron platen is superior to a wooden one for producing a sharp clear impression, where fine work is wanted; for, by discarding woollen blankets, the pressure must be increased to obtain this effect, which indents wood, and then requires so many overlays to make a uniform impression, that they produce nearly the same effect as blankets, and it becomes necessary to new face the surface frequently, which is inconvenient and expensive: the iron platen is not subject to this inconvenience; but it is more liable to injure the types, as it will not yield; and should there be any inequality on the surface of the form, owing to it not being well planed down, or to any extraneous matter being upon it or under it, the types must give way, and be destroyed. Generally speaking, the iron platen wears the types more than a wooden one.

The head of the press should be so justified as to produce what is termed a soaking pull; that is, the form should begin to feel the pressure of the platen when about two thirds down; then, when the bar is pulled home, or what is technically called cheeked, which I would always recommend to be done in good work, as it keeps the pull regular and uniform, the power slowly increases, and the paper has time to be pressed gradually on the types, which causes it to receive the ink on all its parts, and produces a clear impression.

This justifying the head relates to wooden presses, where the head and the winter are allowed some play, which is filled up with pieces of scaleboard, called cards, cut to the size of the mortises in the cheeks, and inserted in them upon the tenons of the head, and under the tenons of the winter, allowing the pull to have some elasticity. For my own part, I would have the winter lie solid, and the spring be confined to the head. See Winter.

In the iron presses constructed on the late Earl Stanhope’s principle, where increased power is produced by means of a compound lever applied to the screw, and where there is no elasticity in the pull, this effect is produced in a greater degree than in a press of the common construction; for, as the platen descends on the form, the power increases considerably, but the motion is slower; thus the effect of the soaking pull is preserved, with a considerable addition of power, owing to the combined action of the screw and the compound lever.

In Ruthven’s press, where the platen is suspended from the head, and brought over the form by means of small wheels with grooves in their edges running on the ribs, the pull is regulated by screws on the locking pieces, and also through the springs by which it rests on the ribs, that bring it nearer to, or remove it from the form.

In Clymer’s Columbian press, where the power is obtained by a compound lever, the pull is regulated by a screw that connects the bar with the lever, and additionally by thin plates of iron placed upon the top of the platen under the bottom of the spindle. It is also regulated in the same way, in the Albion press, as originally constructed by R. W. Cope.

In Sherwin and Cope’s Imperial press the pull is justified by a wedge above the head of the spindle or bolt in the front, which has a screw attached to it with a projecting head, by which the pull is adjusted to the greatest nicety, with ease and facility. Mr. Hopkinson has adopted the same plan in the Albion press since it came under his management on the death of Mr. Cope.

The advantage of having a good press will be unavailing for the production of fine work, if the types are much worn; for it will be found impossible to produce a sharp clear impression if the perfect shape of the letter and the fine lines are rounded and worn away by much use, as, in consequence of this roundness of the letter from wear, it will be necessary to use much blanket in the tympan to bring up the shape of the whole letter, which will produce a gross and indelicate impression of more than the surface.

I have been told that Didot, of Paris, in his most splendid works, never printed more than three sheets from the same fount of letter, when it was sent to the melting pot, and replaced by a new fount.

The colour of the ink must depend on the taste or fancy of the master printer;—but no, I am mistaken, for, unless he prepares his own ink, he is obliged to use that only which is manufactured for general use; and there is little if any choice in purchasing this article, when it is wanted of a superior quality. Leaving the particular shade or tone out of the question, I will state my opinion as to what the qualities of black printing ink ought to be for fine work.

Intenseness of colour.

Impalpability.

Covering the surface perfectly of the type or engraving.

Quitting the surface of the type or engraving, when the paper is pressed on it, and adhering to the paper.

Not smearing after it is printed.

Retaining its first appearance without any change.

Ink ought to be reduced to an impalpable smoothness, either in a mill or on a stone with a mullar; and this is essentially necessary, as the process gives it the next quality—of completely covering the surface of the type, or the lines of the engraving, and that with the smallest quantity; and, with proper care in printing, presents to the eye an impression, in which the edges of the lines are smooth and perfect, and the surface of the impression on the paper is completely covered with ink, without any superfluity; which constitute the perfection of presswork with types.

Another property required in ink is, that it shall not only cover the surface of the lines on the paper printed, but that it shall also quit the face of the type or engraving, and leave it quite clean when the paper is impressed on it, and attach itself to the paper, so as to give a perfect impression of the subject represented, without the colour of the paper appearing through the ink; and that this property, of quitting the type or engraving, and becoming attached to the paper, shall continue the same through any number of impressions, without any accumulation of ink on the surface printed from.

After having obtained these results, and when the printing is as perfect as it can be made by workmanship, still something more is requisite, viz. that the ink shall not smear on being slightly rubbed; and that it shall retain its colour and appearance, without the oil in the ink spreading at the edges, or tinging the paper—in short, that it shall continue unchanged for any length of time, thus preserving and continuing the beauty of the work.

The balls should be in good condition, otherwise the pressman may exert his skill in vain, with a great loss of time and waste of paper, without the intended effect. They are made smaller and stuffed tighter with wool than those used for common work, which enables the pressman to distribute the strong ink that is used with more facility; they also cover the surface with ink better than if they were softer, and are easier for the workman; for large soft balls, used with ink made very strong with varnish and colour, would be almost unmanageable.

The quality of the paper is of great consequence in fine printing, but it is frequently overlooked by the printer’s employers, who are too apt to pay more attention to a showy appearance and a low price, than to quality.

The best paper for receiving an impression, as I have observed in the article Engravings on Wood, is India paper; but as that which comes to England is thin, it is not used for bookwork, neither would it be durable, as it wants toughness to enable it to sustain much wear.

The next best paper for printing is French plate paper, which is superior to English plate paper, as the latter has a good deal of gypsum in its composition, which causes it to be very uncertain in the wetting; for having given it a sufficient quantity of water, judging from appearances and by comparison, and expecting to have it in good condition, the pressman shall find it, when wanted for use, nearly dry, and harsh, and the water unequally diffused; it has then to be wetted again, and particular attention must be paid to the turning and pressing of it, before it is in a proper state for printing on. I attribute this effect to the gypsum, which has had its water of crystallization driven off by fire in preparing it, and the water which it takes up in wetting crystallizes to supply its place. I do not say that all English plate paper is affected in this manner by water, but I have repeatedly experienced it in practice; and in the second wetting, if great care be not taken, the gypsum being already saturated, it will imbibe too much water, which will squeeze out in printing, and prevent the paper from taking the ink uniformly, so as to spoil the impression.

The best English paper for printing on is that which is made of fine linen rags, and moderately sized, without the use of acids in bleaching, and without being adulterated with cotton rags: this paper takes water kindly, is easily got into good condition, receives a good impression, is durable, preserves its colour, and does not act upon the ink.

Messrs. J. Dickinson and Co. have made great improvements in the quality of paper, and manufacture one kind which is admirably adapted for printing, being made by a peculiar process which gives it a particular affinity for the ink. They have also introduced improvements in the manufacture which have superseded the use of French paper with us, and have also nearly done so with the Chinese or India paper.

Having thus spoken of what I mean by fine presswork, and of the materials by which it is to be produced, I shall now proceed to describe the process; for when a printing office is provided with materials of the best quality, and the master of it is desirous of producing superior workmanship, there is something more required—he must resolve to lay in a fund of patience, as well as to submit to a great and continued expense of materials, or else he will never excel.

A good pressman will, as a matter of course, be well acquainted with the whole of the usual routine of presswork; in addition to which, to form his judgment, he should make himself acquainted with the most splendid books, and study them as patterns of workmanship.

In making ready it must be evident, that when a clear sharp impression is wanted, the pressure should be on the surface only, without penetrating into the interstices; of course the tympan ought not to be very soft, neither should any woollen blanket be used: the most perfect impression will be obtained when fine thick paper alone is used in the tympans, and even of this article I would not recommend many thicknesses.

After an impression is printed, the pressman examines if it be uniform throughout; if it be, which is very rarely the case, he goes on with the work; if not, he proceeds to overlay, in order to produce regularity of pressure, and of colour, over the whole form.

To effect this object, he takes thin smooth paper, and wherever the impression is weak he pastes a bit of it, of the size and shape of the imperfect part, on the tympan sheet, and proceeds in the same manner with every part that is imperfect; he then pulls another impression to examine the effect of his overlays, and continues to add to them where wanted, till the pressure of the platen is the same in every part, and the impression is uniformly of one shade of colour.

If the impression come off too strong in parts, or at the edges or corners of the pages, or on the head lines, it will be necessary to cut away the tympan sheet in those parts, and, if that does not ease the pressure sufficiently, to cut away the same parts from one or more of the sheets that are within the tympans.

It is generally preferable to overlay on a sheet of stout smooth paper inside the tympan, and particularly where the same press does the whole or great part of a work: this sheet is cut to fit the interior of the tympan, so as not to slip about, and has overlays pasted on it where wanted, to bring up the impression till it is very nearly equal; in all succeeding sheets it saves the pressman a great deal of time, as he will be certain that when he pulls a sheet of another form of the same work it will be nearly right, and he will only have to place thin overlays on occasional parts to make the impression perfect, with very little trouble. On the same principle, where this method is not adopted, preserving and using the same tympan sheet with its overlays, will be more expeditious than having to repeat the operation with every form.

Where short pages occur in a form, the bottoms of them and the edges of the adjoining pages will print too hard, and not prove a clear impression; it will therefore be necessary to have bearers to protect them, which are generally of double pica reglet pasted on the frisket, so as to bear on some part of the furniture or chase; but high bearers, made to the height of the types, are better, when they can be placed so that the balls do not touch them during the process of beating: in such a case they are liable to tear the frisket, from their closely adhering to it by their inky surface and the pressure. They may be placed where the regular foot of the page would have been had it been a full one, to prevent those hard edges which would otherwise be produced. This principle will hold good in all cases of short pages, blank pages, and the edges of wood cuts; but where it happens that some of the edges, or a particular page of a full form, come off too hard, and where there is not room to place a high bearer, then a piece of double pica reglet pasted on the frisket in the usual way will answer the purpose.

It is not necessary that these bearers should be placed close to the part requiring to be eased; they will produce the same effect if placed at a distance, keeping the direction, so that they take a good bearing on the platen, avoiding the frame of the frisket and the points; in using reglet as low bearers, I would recommend that the flat side of the furniture should be turned uppermost to receive the pressure of the bearers, provided they do not bear upon the chase.

When a high bearer does not ease the pull sufficiently on particular parts, its effect may be increased by pasting slips of stout paper on it, as overlays or underlays, and a bearer of reglet may be amended in a similar manner.

It happens occasionally that the tympan causes the paper to touch the form partially on being turned down, and occasions slurs, and this may occur from the parchment being slack or the paper being thin and soft. To prevent this inconvenience it is customary to roll up a piece of paper, similar to bookbinders headbands, and paste it on the frisket adjoining the part; this roll of paper takes a slight bearing on the furniture, and is a remedy. Many pressmen prefer pieces of cork cut to about the thickness of double pica, and pasted on the frisket.

It is neither customary nor advisable to fly the frisket in the best work, and more particularly when large heavy paper is used; it is a convenience in such cases to have a button screwed on the off side of the frame of the tympan, to confine the frisket flat to the tympan; it keeps the paper in its place, assists it in rising from the face of the form, to which it adheres owing to the strength of the ink; it helps to prevent slurring, and the paper from slipping, which occasions waste when it happens: altogether the button is of consequence in preventing accidents in the impression.

In working the white paper, instead of pins stuck into the tympan, to prevent the paper slipping, a duck’s bill is frequently used: it is pasted to the tympan at the bottom of the tympan sheet, and the tongue projects in front of it, indeed the tympan sheet appears to rest in it. The bottom of each sheet is placed behind this tongue, which supports it while turning down the tympan. See Duck’s Bill.

In proceeding with the work the balls should be well cleaned, that no dirt or extraneous matter may be on their surface. They should not be too moist, which would prevent the ink distributing equally on them, and would also prevent it lying equally on the surface of the types or engraving; nor should they be too dry, as in that case they will not dispose of the ink so smoothly as to produce a fine impression; neither will they retain particles of dirt on their surface, but part with them to the form, which will cause picks. The moisture ought to be just so much as to make the pelt or composition soft, when the ink will distribute kindly and equally, which will be perceived by their lugging; they will also part with it to the form equally where they touch, so that the impression will be sharp and clear.

The ink ought to be rubbed out thin and regular on the ink block, so that in taking ink it shall at the very first be diffused tolerably smooth on the surface of the balls, which causes a greater probability of producing good impressions. It is likewise advisable to keep rubbing the ink out on the block with the brayer, as also to be almost constantly distributing the balls; the consequent friction produces a small degree of warmth, which is of advantage, particularly in cold weather.

As uniformity of colour is requisite for beauty in printing, I would recommend that the pressman should take ink for every impression where the form is large; this I am aware will be thought too troublesome, but I am decidedly of opinion that it is advantageous in producing regularity of colour: it is unpleasant to the eye to see in a splendid book two pages that face each other, the one of a full black, rather surcharged with ink, the other rather deficient in quantity and of a grey colour; yet this must happen when, as is frequently the case, three or four sheets are printed with one taking of ink.

Beating for fine work should not by any means be slighted. The form ought to be gone over two or three times, not with heavy thumps, but slowly and regularly with a firm hand, just raising the balls each time completely clear of the types, and advancing but a little way, so that in fact each part will be beat five or six times over, or more; the face of the type will then be completely covered with ink: but the pressman should be careful not to beat too far over the edges of the pages, nor, if the margin be wide, to let the balls scrape against the edges of another page, as in both cases ink or extraneous matter will be scraped from the balls, and accumulate about the types at the extremities, and thus cause picks and rough lines.

In splendid books, and particularly where the paper is large and heavy and the type large, set-off sheets are used to interleave the whole impression while working, and are continued in it till the printed paper is taken down from the poles, when they are removed by the warehouseman. These set-off sheets are put in when the white paper is working, and moved from one heap to the other during the working of the reiteration. They prevent the ink from setting off from one sheet to another while they are newly printed, which it would otherwise do from the weight of the paper, and also from fine printing being usually worked of a full colour.

For the uniformity of impression I would advise that the pull should be adjusted in the first instance so as to cause a proper degree of pressure on the form to produce a good impression when the bar is pulled home, and then invariably to cheek the bar, and allow it to rest in that position during a short pause; this is easily done in the Stanhope, the Ruthven, the Columbian, and Sherwin and Cope’s presses, as the increased power is obtained by a compound lever, which is generally so adjusted as that the lever shall come a small portion beyond the centre of the circle it partially describes when the bar is pulled home, and as it has then reached a point beyond its maximum power, it is easily retained in this position to rest on the pull: the same observation applies to all other presses having, what is usually termed, the increased power, which is the application of a compound lever to a press on the common construction; but in a one pull wooden press, instead of this application, which I must acknowledge I never knew to answer well when applied to these presses, I would recommend when fine work is doing a simple contrivance that I adopted in two presses, which answered the purpose uncommonly well, and enabled the pressmen to rest on the pull uniformly, without too much effort to keep the bar to the cheek, which with a heavy form and a large platen becomes very fatiguing to continue through a number of impressions, if not impossible, with the unaided exertion of the arm. See Catch of the Bar.

It will thus be perceived, that to produce presswork of a highly superior character, great expense and much time are required; and that it is requisite to have a good press, and that press to be in good condition; to have new types, or types the faces of which are not rounded by wear; to have good balls, and those balls in good condition; the ink should be strong, of a full black colour, the oil well boiled, to prevent it separating from the colouring matter and tinging the paper, and it should be ground so fine as to be impalpable; the paper should be of the best quality, made of linen rags, and not bleached by means of an acid which has a tendency to decompose the ink; the beating should be carefully and well done, not in a hurried manner, the face of the type should be completely covered with ink, without any superfluity, so as to produce a full colour; and the pull should be so regulated as to have a slow and great pressure, and to pause at its maximum in order to fix the ink firmly upon the paper; these particulars observed, with paper only in the tympans, perfect impressions of the face of the type only will be obtained in the most superior manner, and a splendid book will thus be produced in the best style of printing.

siglum: DAP

author: Savage, William

work: A Dictionary of the Art of Printing


fine red

norm: fine red

text: A marbling color used before the introduction of synthetic dyestuffs, and prepared by boiling Brazil dust, nutgalls, alum, sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride) and hydrochloric acid in water, or by dissolving Brazil wood in hydrochloric acid.

citations: Crane, W. J. E. Bookbinding for amateurs…New York. Scribner. 1903.


fines

norm: fines

text: The very short fibers or fiber fragments and ray cells. Both types are very short, consequently they reduce the strength of the paper. The fines from broken fibers have thicker cell walls and larger diameters than those from ray cells, which leads to differences in the final sheet depending upon which types are present. Sometimes also called "flour" or "wood flour."


finish

norm: finish

text:
1. The degree of brilliance, pliability and working qualities of cloth, leather, or paper. 2. To letter and/or decorate a book. See: FINISHING.

3. the surface properties of a sheet of paper as determined by its surface contour, gloss, and general appearance. It is a property which is usually determined visually. In uncoated printing papers, there are five major finishes recognized under the general terminology of machine-finish papers; in order of decreasing degree of smoothness, they are: English, machine, vellum, eggshell, and antique. For papers of higher finish, see: SUPERCALENDER finish.

Writing papers, including bonds, ledges, and manilas, generally have finishes called cockle, glazed, machine, supercalendered, and vellum. The finishes used for cover paper include antique, machine, plate, supercalendered, and vellum. The principal finishes for bristols are antique, eggshell, plate, and vellum.

citations: American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

citations: Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.


finish break

norm: finish break

text: A CRUSTY BREAK of a leather—one which can be attributed to improper finishing.


finisher

norm: finisher

text: 1. The bookbinder or gilder who performs the processes of polishing the leather, lettering. and embellishing, which are carried out on a hand-bound book subsequent to forwarding. In France, it is not unusual for the two operations—i.e., forwarding and finishing—to he performed by different persons: in England and the United States. on the other hand, the two are usually done by the same craftsman. except in commercial hand binding. 2. A machine used to apply varnish, lacquer, or other fluid to covering materials by means of a spray or roller, or a printing or blocking plate. 3. A term sometimes applied to flat or cylindrical polishing tools, e.g., a BURNISHER (2). (158. 173)

citations: Horton, Carolyn. Cleaning and preserving bindings and related materials. Chicago. American Library Association. (Conservation of library materials pamphlet no. l; Library Technology Project publications, no. 16). 1969.


Finishers' Press

norm: finishers press

text: Is the same as a laying-press, only much smaller.


finishing

norm: finishing

text:
1. The art or process of polishing, lettering, and embellishing the spine, covers. insides of the covers. and sometimes the edges of a book. as well as inlaying, onlaying, varnishing, and otherwise decorating and/or protecting the finished bookbinding.

The purpose of finishing is to identify (letter) and beautify the book. but, at least in the latter case, in such a manner as not to interfere with the strength of the binding. The degree of finishing, depends upon the nature of the book, the craftsmanship of the binder or finisher (gilder. as he is traditionally called), whether another craftsman did the forwarding, and, at times, the wishes of the customer.

Finishing has assumed a very important role in the craft of bookbinding since the earliest times. Almost all early finishing, at least in Europe, was in blind until the latter half of the 15th century, when GOLD TOOLING was introduced into Italy. See also: BLIND TOOLING.

In modern finishing. all but the simplest designs are measured out and drawn or tooled on thin paper. This is then positioned on the cover and heated tools are pressed through. The paper is then removed, and the blind impressions are again blinded-in. This sharpens and deepens the impressions, and, if gold is to be used, provides a smooth flat surface for the metal. In addition to making it possible to execute extremely difficult patterns without making errors on the leather itself, the use of a paper pattern eliminates the necessity of making basic guide lines in blind upon which the design is then built, and which almost invariably show beyond the tooling. It is uncertain when paper patterns were introduced, but they probably were not used much before 1830.

Not all leathers can be tooled successfully. Aside from the great difficulty encountered in tooling chrome-tanned leathers, only those vegetable-tanned (or tawed) leathers with surfaces firm enough to hold a line, such as goatskin, calfskin, pigskin, etc., are suitable. With the exception of sheepskin, leathers that are loose and stretchy do not retain impressions very well.

Library bindings are seldom "finished" to any greater degree than lettering of the spine, although gold lines and/or symbols are sometimes blocked on the spine. Edition bindings vary widely in the degree of their ornamentation. Whatever ornamentation they may have is usually done by means of blocking or printing. Whichever the case. they are "finished" only in the very broadest sense of the term. See also: BLOCKING (1); GOLD BLOCKING; INLAY (4); ONLAY; POLISHING.

2. The various operations in paper manufacture performed after it leaves the papermaking machine. Finishing operations include supercalendering, plating, slitting, rewinding, sheeting, trimming, sorting, counting, and packaging. Ruling, punching, pasting, folding and embossing are also at times considered to be paper finishing operations.

3. The processes in leather manufacture following tannage, including shaving or splitting, dyeing, fatliquoring, setting out, drying, staking, finishing or seasoning, glazing (or plating or embossing), and measuring.

citations: Donnelley (R. R.) & Sons Co. Extra binding at the Lakeside Press. Chicago. Donnelley. 1925.

citations: Fahey, Herbert, and Peter Fahey. Finishing in hand bookbinding…  San Francisco. The authors. 1951.

citations: Kinder, Louis Herman. Formulas for bookbinders…London. Putnam. 1905.

citations: Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.

citations: Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.

citations: Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


finishing

text: Is that department that receives the volumes after they are put in leather, and ornaments them as required. One who works at this branch is termed a finisher.


finishing

text: Comprises tooling, lettering, polishing, etc.


finishing

text: The department that receives the volumes after they are put in leather. The ornaments placed on the volume. The person who works at this branch is termed a finisher.

siglum: ABB

author: Zaehnsdorf, Joseph W.

work: The Art of Bookbinding: A Practical Treatise


finishing

text: comprises lettering, tooling, and polishing, &c.

siglum: BCB

author: Cockerell, Douglas

work: Bookbinding, and the Care of Books


finishing

text: The department which receives books after they are put in leather, and ornaments them as required. It includes lettering, tooling, polishing, etc. Also, the ornaments placed on a book. One who works at this branch is termed a finisher.


finishing press

norm: finishing press

text: A small press consisting essentially of two wooden cheeks, connected by a screw at each end. with handles for turning. A press pin is not required for this type of press. The finishing press is similar to the cutting- or lying-press, but is smaller and generally has no runners. It came into use as long ago as the early 19th century, and no basic changes were made in this basic press until a completely different type came into use in the 1880s. This new press consisted of two small cheeks, somewhat like rounded-off backing boards, which moved on joints.


finishing press

text: A small press, used for holding books when being finished.


finishing press

text: a small press used for holding books when they are being tooled (see Fig. 84).


finishing press

text: A small press with which a book is held firmly with its back upward and exposed for work.


finishing stand

norm: finishing stand

text: 1. A revolving stand consisting of a flat, circular board, covered with a soft, smooth material, mounted on another board. The lower board is stationary and rests on rubber knobs which are attached to its lower surface to raise it and prevent slipping. Ball bearings between the two boards allow the top one to revolve easily, thus making it possible to shift the position of the book with minimum effort. 2. A stand with a sliding shelf and an arm clamp which can be attached to the bench to hold a book while finishing. See also: FINISHING PRESS.


finishing stove

norm: finishing stove

text:
A small stove used for heating finishing and lettering tools. Such stoves generally have a circular plate in the center which is heated. and an outer notched ring to support the handles of the tools. Modern finishing stoves are heated by gas or electricity, and some are controlled by a thermostat.

While little is known of the form of early finishing stoves, many different types were probably used, because they were frequently fabricated according to the bookbinder's own specifications. A great variety were in use during the early years of the 19th century, all of which burned charcoal or coke, as they must have done for centuries. The gas-heated stove was probably introduced in the 1830s, while the electric stove has been in use since the early part of the 20th century.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


finishing stove

text: A heating box or fire used for warming the various tools used in finishing.


finishing stove

text: used for heating finishing tools.


finishing stove

text: A small gas heater, similar to a “hot plate,” for heating finishing tools.


finishing tools

norm: finishing tools

text: See: BAND PALLET; CIRCLES; CREASER (2); FILLET (1); GOUGE; HAND LETTERS; PALLET (1); POLISHER; ROLL. (1); STAMP (1); UNIT TOOLS.


FIRE EATER

norm: fire eater

text: Compositors who are expeditious workmen are styled Fire Eaters, and also Swifts.


firmness of leather

norm: firmness of leather

text: That property of a leather reflected in the force required to bend a standard strip of heavy leather through an arc of given radius of curvature. so that the grain surface of the leather forms an arc of a circle of given radius.


FIRST

norm: first

text:
The pressman who has wrought the longest at that press, except an apprentice, for he must allow any journeyman, though new come, that style, is distinguished by the name of First, the other his Second, these call one another companions: generally the master printer reposes the greatest trust upon the care and curiosity for good work of the First; although both are equally liable to perform it. All the privilege that the First has above the Second is, that the First takes his choice to pull or beat the agreed stint first: and that the Second knocks up the balls, washes the forms, teazes wool, and does the other more servile work, while the First is employed about making register, ordering the tympan, frisket, and points, &c., or otherwise making ready the form, &c.—M.

At the present day there is no such distinction; both the pressmen are equal, are equally responsible for the work, and take all the respective parts without any distinction; unless one of them be an acknowledged superior workman, and then he will, as a matter of course, take the lead in making ready, but in nothing else.


first binding

norm: first binding

text: The original binding of a library book. The term is not generally used with reference to the binding of serial publications. but to the binding of pamphlets in self-covers, paperback books, sewn books in temporary covers, or books in gatherings.

citations: Emerson, Gilbert D. Bookbinding for libraries. Philadelphia. n.p. 1909.


first edition

norm: first edition

text: The entire number of copies of a book or other publication printed from the same setting of type. The books may be printed at any time. A new edition does not come into being until there have been substantial changes in the type, i.e., a corrected edition, additions to the text (which is a revised edition), or until the type has been reset, which would be a new edition, 2nd edition, etc.

citations: Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.


FIRST FORM

norm: first form

text: The form the white paper is printed on, which generally by rule ought to have the first page of the sheet in it.—M. This is the reverse of the present custom, which is invariably to lay on the inner form first, viz. the one that has the second page in it; except it is directed to the contrary, for some particular reason. See Lay on.


FIRST FORM

text: The form first printed, which generally contains the first page of a sheet.

siglum: AMP

author: MacKellar, Thomas

work: The American Printer: A Manual of Typography


first impression

norm: first impression

text: 1. The initial application of a finishing tool or hand letter to the covering material of a book. 2. All of the copies of a book printed during the first printing operation and before any alterations or additions are made. Subsequent printings following the first, producing reprints, are called "second impression," "third impression," etc.

citations: Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


first lining

norm: first lining

text: The initial strip of material attached to the spine of a book subsequent to rounding and backing. In edition and library binding, it is generally the only lining. See also: SECOND LINING; SPINE LINING (1).

citations: Harrison, T. The bookbinding craft and industry; an outline of its history, development, and technique. London. Pitman. 1926.


FIRST PAGE

norm: first page

text: First page of the sheet, which is always placed to the left hand in the first or outer form on the stone, when imposing.—M. In Hebrew works it is placed to the right hand, as in books printed in that language the order of the pages is reversed.


FIRST PROOF

norm: first proof

text: The first impression of any matter after it is composed, for the purpose of comparing it with the copy; it is usually printed on a cheap hard sized paper, that will bear writing ink well, to mark the literal errors, and any variations from the copy that may have occurred, in order to assist their correction in the metal.


FIRST PULL

norm: first pull

text: In a two pull press of the common construction, the platen only covers half a full form, and to obtain an impression of the whole, the carriage is run in at twice; the first pull prints one half, and the second pull the other half.


firsts

norm: firsts

text: 1. Hides and skins that are, or at least are designated as, perfect, i.e., free from holes, tears, putrefactive damage, etc. See also: GOOD SECONDS. 2. A term applied at times to the FIRST EDITION of a book.

citations: Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


fish glue

norm: fish glue

text: An adhesive obtained by boiling the skins of certain fish, particularly the cod fish, and used cold mainly in the liquid form. It works easily and is used in bookbinding for tipping-in and casemaking. See also: ISINGLASS

citations: Katz, Irving. Adhesive materials, their properties and usage. Long Beach, Calif. Foster. 1971.

citations: Skeist, Irving. Handbook of adhesives. New York. Reinhold. 1962.


fish grained split

norm: fish grained split

text: A sheepskin split, dyed and finished by embossing with a small "gunpowder" grain.

citations: Crane, W. J. E. Bookbinding for amateurs…New York. Scribner. 1903.


fish scales

norm: fish scales

text: A particular grain pattern in a leather resembling the scales of a fish. Leather with this type of grain was at one time used by bookbinders who wanted a leather giving the effect of being blind tooled.


fixation value

norm: fixation value

text: The relative speed with which different vegetable tannins combine with hide substance as measured by the relative amounts which combine under specified conditions.

citations: O'Flaherty, Fred, and others, eds. The chemistry and technology of leather. New York. Reinhold. (American Chemical Society monograph series, no. 134. 1956-65. 4 vol.


fixative

norm: fixative

text: A clear solution, such as a synthetic resin in xylene (C8H10) sprayed or coated on a work of art, a reproduction copy, etc., that "fixes" or stabilizes the image, thus making it more resistant to wear, smudging, etc. Fixatives protect and preserve, but they also at times change the refractive index and may also impart an unnatural sheen to the colors, possibly one not intended by the artist.

citations: Mayer, Ralph. A dictionary of art terms and techniques. New York. Crowell. 1969.


fixed back

norm: fixed back

text: See: TIGHT BACK.


fixed tannin

norm: fixed tannin

text: See: COMBINED TANNIN IN LEATHER.


flag

norm: flag

text: 1. A marker, such as a small strip of colored paper, placed so as to protrude from between the leaves of a book. Its purpose is either to show the position of the book on the shelf, or to indicate that the leaf marked (or the entire book) requires special attention. 2. A slip placed in the center of each section to facilitate sewing of the headband.

citations: Gazurian, Johnny A. The advertising & graphic arts glossary. Los Angeles. Los Angeles Trade-Technical College. 1966.

citations: Horton, Carolyn. Cleaning and preserving bindings and related materials. Chicago. American Library Association. (Conservation of library materials pamphlet no. l; Library Technology Project publications, no. 16). 1969.


flaking

norm: flaking

text: The separating of the coating material from a coated sheet of paper or cloth, appearing in the form of flakes. Art paper and the cheaper grades of coated cloth are particularly subject to this problem.

citations: American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.


flange

norm: flange

text: The projection on either side of the spine of a text block that has been rounded and backed. It is commonly, and more accurately, referred to as the SHOULDER (1).

citations: American Library Association. Editorial Committee. Subcommittee on library terminology. A. L. A. glossary of library terms, with a selection of terms in related fields. Compiled by Elizabeth H. Thompson. Chicago. American Library Association. 1943.

citations: Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.


FLARING A FORM

norm: flaring a form

text: In working by candle light, when imposing, correcting, or laying a form on the press, it sometimes happens that melted tallow will be spilt on the pages and choke up the letter. To get rid of this tallow, and clean the form again, the compositor lights a piece of paper and puts it on the grease, to melt it; he then brushes it with the letter brush, and, if necessary, repeats the operation.


FLARING BALLS

norm: flaring balls

text:
When pelt balls are too soft, from having imbibed too much moisture, and are wanted for immediate use, they are flared; that is, the pressman will take a sheet of waste paper, and having rolled it up slightly, will light it, and holding the face of one of the balls downwards, will pass it backwards and forwards over the flame, and then treat the other ball in a similar manner: this not only evaporates the moisture, but also communicates a small degree of warmth to the balls, which causes them both to take ink and to distribute it better than before the operation.

Composition balls are liable to crack, both in distributing, and also when separating them after they have been left in the rack upon each other, particularly when they are new and soft; to remedy this, they are flared, which, when it is judiciously done, melts the surface of the composition and fills up the cracks. They are also flared when the face begins to fail, which melts the composition, and forms a new and smooth surface.


flat back binding

norm: flat back binding

text: 1. A hand-bound book which has not been rounded and backed before the boards are attached. The term is also sometimes applied to a book which has lost its round; however FLAT SPINE is a more appropriate term for this condition. The spine of a flat back binding has a tendency to become concave. Also called "square back." See also: FLAT BACK CASE BINDING. 2. A leather binding which does not have bands appearing on the spine.

citations: Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.


flat back case binding

norm: flat back case binding

text: A simple type of (library) binding which has a flat spine and is cased or has a one-piece covering. This type of binding is suitable for typescript, some pamphlets, and adhesive-bound paperbacks.

citations: Percival, George Stanley, and Rigby Graham. Unsewn binding. 2nd ed. Leicester. Dryad. 1966.


flat cut index

norm: flat cut index

text: See: CUT THROUGH INDEX.


flat finish

norm: flat finish

text: A paper having a smooth, glare-free finish.


flat spine

norm: flat spine

text: The shape given to books in the 1820s. They were not the same as the FLAT BACK BINDING because they were backed but not rounded, or had very little rounding. The flat spine and HOLLOW BACK came into use at about the same time.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


flats

norm: flats

text: An old term applied to papers of various types which have a well closed, even formation and a high finish, and which are particularly suitable for writing purposes. The term derives from the practice of counting into quires and then folding the pack. When it became the practice to deliver writing papers unfolded, they were called "flats." Today the term is usually restricted to papers such as tablet paper, as well as to paper with a smooth, flat finish as distinguished from bond finish.

citations: Labarre, E. J. Dictionary and encyclopaedia of paper and papermaking. 2nd ed. London. Oxford University Press. 1952.


flax

norm: flax

text: The bast fiber from the inner bark of the flax plant (Linun usitatissimum), and the source of linen for thousands of years. The bast fiber is about 25 mm long and approximately 0.02 mm thick, giving it a length to diameter ratio of about 1,250:1. It is thinner than the cotton fiber and its tube has thicker walls. It is also stiffer and stronger than cotton, has a rounded section and is knotted at intervals along its length. Linen rags, cuttings, thread, etc., have long been used in the manufacture of paper. See also: BOOK CLOTH; SEWING THREAD.

citations: Grant, Julius. Books & documents; dating, permanence and preservation. London. Grafton. 1937.


flaying

norm: flaying

text:
The process of removing the hide or skin from an animal carcass. Flaying is normally the job of the butcher, and, in general, the methods used in flaying give first priority to producing a good quality carcass, not hide, as the animal is generally slaughtered for its meat.

The animal should be in a clean, healthy condition and the slaughter rapid and efficient. Bruising should be carefully avoided. The animal is bled after slaughter to remove blood from the carcass and also from the small veins and arteries in the skin. If this is not done rapidly, the blood will clot and putrefy, resulting in blue-black markings in the skin. The skin should also be removed immediately, while the carcass is still warm, as removal then is much easier. Subsequent to flaying, the skin cools down more quickly, giving less chance of putrefaction. Some form of curing generally follows flaying. See also: BRINING; DRY-SALTING; PUTREFACTIVE DAMAGE; WET-SALTING.

citations: Reed, Ronald. Ancient skin, parchments and leathers. London. Seminar Press. 1972.

citations: Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.

citations: Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


flea seed

norm: flea seed

text:
A small, brown, hard seed, so called because of its resemblance to a flea. It is boiled in water to make MARBLING SIZE.

It was usually used in combination with GUM TRAGACANTH in the execution of the shell and Spanish marble patterns. It was not (and apparently could not) be used for the drawn or combed marbles, as it dragged the colors and did not allow the comb to pass through smoothly. As it has no advantage over CARRAGHEEN MOSS or gum tragacanth, its use was never extensive and it is seldom if ever used at all today.

citations: Loring, Rosamond Bowditch. Decorated book papers…1st ed. 1942; 2nd ed. 1952. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.

citations: Woolnough, Charles W. The whole art of marbling as applied to paper, book edges…Rev. ed. London. Bell. 1881.


flesh side

norm: flesh side

text: The side of a hide or skin next to the animal, or the side opposite the grain side. See also: BUFFING (1); REVERSE CALF; SPLIT.


flesh split

norm: flesh split

text: 1. The inner layer of a hide or skin separated from the main part of the skin by means of a splitting machine. 2. The leather made from such a split. See also: FLESHER.

citations: British Standards Institution. British standard glossary of leather terms. B. S. 2780: 1956. London. British Standards Institution.


flesher

norm: flesher

text: The inside split (flesh split) of a lamb- or sheepskin, embossed and finished in imitation of grained leather, and used at times for lining the spines of cheaper blankbooks. See also: BUFFING (1).

citations: Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


fleshing

norm: fleshing

text:
One of the beamhouse operations in leather manufacture. Fleshing consists of the removal of areolar tissue from the flesh side of a hide or skin. It usually precedes liming, and is generally done by means of a fleshing machine, or, in hand work, by working the skin over the beam with a sharp, two-handed knife. In European tanneries, fleshing generally takes place following liming and unhairing.

Fleshing promotes the entry of water from the flesh side, which is important as water is absorbed more readily from the flesh side than from the epidermal or grain side. Fleshing also flattens and stretches the skin, has a pronounced cleaning action, and, in the case of greasy skin, such as domestic sheep or pig, removes a quantity of surplus fat.

Good, clean fleshing is important for the success of all subsequent processes, as bits of flesh or fat on the skin can retard the penetration of tannins, fatliquors, and the like. See also: GREEN FLESHING.


fleur-de-lis-lozenge

norm: fleur-de-lis-lozenge

text: A lozenge shaped finishing tool made up of a fleur-de-lis, or a variation thereof, the three pedals and stalks of which extend to fill the four corners.

citations: Oldham, James Basil. English blind-stamped bindings. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1952.


fleuron

norm: fleuron

text: A finishing tool cut in a nondescript form, partly floral or foliage in nature, generally of a lozenge shape and generally used to fill the lozenge compartments of a panel that is divided by diagonal fillets.


Flexible

norm: flexible

text: When a book is sewn on raised bands and the thread is passed entirely round each band.


Flexible

text: A book sewn on raised bands, with the thread passed entirely around each band, allowing the book to open freely.


Flexible

text: When a book is sewn on raised bands, and the thread is passed entirely round each band. It is the strongest sewing done at the present time. This term is often misused for limp work, because the boards are limp or flexible.


flexible adhesives

norm: flexible adhesives

text: See: ADHESIVES; FLEXIBLE GLUE; INTERNALLY PLASTICIZED; RESINOUS ADHESIVES.


Flexible binding

norm: flexible binding

text: When a book is sewn on raised bands or cords and the thread is passed entirely round each band, and the whole binding is such as to permit the book to be opened readily.


flexible endpaper

norm: flexible endpaper

text: An endpaper designed to provide a flyleaf that is heavier than a single sheet of paper, but is still flexible enough to not interfere with the opening of the book. Developed at the workshop of British binders Roger Powell and Peter Waters between 1960 and 1965, this endpaper is constructed by tipping two folios together in two places: along the spine and along the fore edge.


flexible glue

norm: flexible glue

text:
Generally, an ordinary animal glue containing GLYCEROL or SORBITOL, the softening effect of the latter supposedly lasting longer than the former. These softening agents, or "humectants," are hygroscopic and may, under certain conditions, absorb so much moisture as to promote the growth of mold; consequently a mold inhibitor is generally included in the plasticizer.

The origin of "flexible" animal glues is unknown, but they were certainly in use since early in the 20th century. Their use in bookbinding, however, has declined sharply in recent years in favor of INTERNALLY PLASTICIZED synthetic adhesives, such as the RESINOUS ADHESIVES.

citations: Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957


flexible glue

text: This is usually made by adding about two tablespoonfuls of glycerine to half a pound of the glue in a dry state.


flexible not to show

norm: flexible not to show

text:
A method of sewing the sections of a book in which the spine of the gathered sections is sawn lightly so that the saw cuts do not penetrate completely through the folds of the sections. The sewing is then done on thin cords, encircling them as in FLEXIBLE SEWING.

If the cords project above the spine after sewing they are hammered into the grooves during backing. Books sewn in this manner may have hollow or tight backs; in the case of the hollow back, the purpose of sewing not to show apparently is to prevent creasing of the leather of the spine by the cords, while attempting to retain the strength of genuine flexible sewing. In the case of the tight back, the purpose is to have a smooth spine and a book with sewing that is stronger than is possible with RECESSED-CORD SEWING; however, in this case, most of the desired benefits are negated because of the need to make the cords extremely thin.

citations: Zaehnsdorf, Joseph William. The art of bookbinding…London. Bell. 1890.


flexible sewing

norm: flexible sewing

text:
A method of sewing the sections of a book to cords or bands which are above the backs of the sections and rest against them, instead of being recessed into the paper. See: RECESSED-CORD SEWING.

The sewing thread is looped completely around the cords, instead of passing in front of them. This type of sewing may be done on single or double cords and is one of the strongest forms of hand sewing known. The method was in use in Europe as early as the 8th century, and represents the foundation upon which hand bookbinding was built and developed for a thousand years.

The number of bands, which were always double (i.e., two cords or thongs adjacent to each other and almost touching), on which 12th and 13th century books were sewn varied from two to five (in the latter case the cords being spaced so there was a greater space between the cords than between the end bands and the head and tail of the book), although examples of books sewn on as many as fourteen cords are known. The use of double cords gradually diminished, however, and by the middle of the 16th century the technique of sewing on single cords had become fairly well established, although largely for smaller books and economical bindings.

The use of flexible sewing has been dominant in fine binding until the present day; however, its use declined sharply from the end of the 18th century until the end of the 19th century, when it was revived to some extent due to the efforts of T.J. Cobden-Sanderson and Douglas Cockerell.

Flexible sewing is not suitable for books printed on very heavy paper, nor in cases where the book is made up of very thick sections. It is also unsuitable for use with coated papers. If used on small volumes, the sewing thread and, therefore, the cords, must be proportionally thinner; otherwise there will be a reduction in flexibility. (]61, 72, 236, 335, 343)


flexible sewing

text: When the cord rests on instead of being sunk into the back and the thread is carried around it; a book thus sewn usually opens freely.


flexural strength

norm: flexural strength

text: A measure of the ability of an adhesive film to withstand repeated flexing, bending, twisting, etc. Flexural strength is of paramount importance in the adhesives used in archival work in general, and bookbinding in particular, especially in adhesives used for gluing up the spine and adhesive binding.

citations: McGuire, Edward Patrick. American adhesive index. Mountainside, N. J. Padric. 1962.


flint hides

norm: flint hides

text: Hides dried without curing.


flock paper

norm: flock paper

text: A speciality cover paper produced by coating the sheet with size, either all over or in patterns or designs, and then applying specially dyed flock powder. Flock paper originally was intended to simulate tapestry and Italian velvet brocade.

citations: American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.


flock powder

norm: flock powder

text: Very short or pulverized fiber, such as wool, cotton, or rayon, used in flock printing and to form velvety patterns on cloth and paper.


floriated

norm: floriated

text: A border, initial letter, or book decorated with small flower or leaf ornaments.

citations: Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


floss

norm: floss

text: Cotton or silk thread used in binding single section pamphlets, usually by side sewing tied in a bowknot.

citations: Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.


flour

norm: flour

text: See: FINES.


flourish style

norm: flourish style

text: See: FANFARE STYLE.


flower-headed rivet

norm: flower-headed rivet

text: A finishing tool cut with an ornamental head in a design resembling a daisy.


FLOWERS

norm: flowers

text:
Types with ornaments cast on their face instead of letters. They are used for borders round jobs, cards, pages, and wrappers of books; and for other embellishments.

Luckombe, in his work on printing, gave many specimens of borders, head pieces, &c. composed of flowers by Mr. Hazard, of Bath; and lately, Mr. Johnson and Mr. Nichols have produced some large and elaborate pieces with this material, by combining an immense number of pieces of different patterns and sizes, to represent pillars and arches; but after all the ingenuity they have displayed, and the patience they have exerted, their productions are inferior to the effect of an engraving; and only tend to prove, in my opinion, that ingenuity and patience are misapplied.

Flowers are cast on bodies from a Pearl up to a Four Line Pica, and of a great variety of patterns. Of late years our letter founders have greatly improved their specimens by the addition of many new designs.

The practice formerly was to cut the pattern perfect on each piece, and many patterns had a line at the foot of each, so that when a border was formed, there was a continual line round the inside. I pointed out to the late Mr. Catherwood, of the firm of Caslon and Catherwood, the inconvenience of both these modes of cutting flowers: in the first case, when the pattern had a solid ground, the flowers joined in that solid part, and, after being used a few times, the angle became rounded, and always showed a separation between each piece; I recommended that the junction should be in the most open part of the design, so that a little rounding of the angle would not be so perceptible: and in the second case, the same cause produced the same effect; for after being used a few times, the angles became rounded, and instead of a continued line, it became a series of short lines, separated from each other by intervals: to remedy this, I suggested to him to discard the line, and that a piece of brass rule should be substituted by the printer, which, being in one piece, would form a continued line, and not be liable to injury from the same cause. He adopted both these plans, and the junction of the flowers that have been subsequently cut has been much improved; but the abolishing of the line has not produced the neat effect I anticipated, for it rarely happens that the printer will take the trouble of placing a rule within the flowers; in consequence, many of the designs present, when printed, a meagre and unfinished appearance.


fluffing

norm: fluffing

text: 1. The process of reducing the substance and smoothing the flesh side of a skin or hide during leather manufacture. See also: BUFFING (2); SNUFFING. 2. The removal of the free or loosely bonded fibers, loading material or dust from the surface of paper during impression. Fluff is a particular defect encountered in lithographic printing, and results in the printed matter showing white or gray images in paper fibers, or other material, removed from the surface of the paper.

citations: Coupe, Raymond Richard. Science of printing technology. London. Cassell. 1966.


flush

norm: flush

variant: flush cut

text: See: CUT FLUSH.


flush board binding

norm: flush board binding

text: A style of binding having the boards glued to the board papers and a paper cover glued to the boards. The book is then CUT FLUSH.


FLY

norm: fly

text: See Devil.—M. A boy who takes the printed sheets off the tympan as soon as the pressman turns it up, for the sake of despatch: it was most frequently done with newspapers, as they are always pressed for time, and are obliged to work with the greatest expedition. These boys are not now called devils, as in the time of Moxon, but Flies, or Fly Boys.


FLY

text: The person or apparatus that takes off the sheets from the press.


fly embossing press

norm: fly embossing press

text: An early version of the BLOCKING PRESS, which was capable of exerting the enormous pressure required to block covers with engraved plates often of the same size as the cover, even quartos and folios. This type of press was probably introduced sometime in the late 1820s by JOSEPH THOUVENIN and was used extensively until the later part of the 19th century. The description "fly" may stem from the instantaneous release of pressure (the platen "flying" up).

citations: Leighton, Douglas. Modern bookbinding: a survey and a prospect. New York. Oxford University Press. 1935.

citations: Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


fly leaf

norm: fly leaf

text: A leaf or leaves at the beginning and end of a book, being the leaf or leaves not pasted to the boards, or covers, of the book. See also: ENDPAPERS.

citations: Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.

citations: Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


Fly leaves

norm: fly leaves

text: The blank leaves at the beginning and end of a book, between the end papers and the book proper.


FLYING FRISKET

norm: flying frisket

text: In working at press, the act of turning down the frisket and the tympan upon the form by the same motion, for despatch; it is always done in the regular way of working, but not in very superior work where the paper is heavy.


flying out

norm: flying out

text: A convex shape to the fore edge of a book, resulting from lack of, or improper, rounding, backing, lining of the spine, or a combination thereof.


flyswing

norm: flyswing

text: A very thin SKIVER used extensively for title labels on cloth- and leather-bound books, and generally lettered in gold. In library binding, the "flyswing" has been replaced by labels of paper and (occasionally) cloth.


Fogel, Johannes

norm: fogel, johannes

text:
One of the most celebrated of German bookbinders, Fogel bound at least one and perhaps as many as four copies of the Gutenberg Bible, one of which bears his signature. Fogel's tools included a rope knot and a lute player stamp, as well as triple fillets accompanied by rosettes. He also worked finely made headbands in red, white, and blue silk. All of his bindings are decorated in a manner characteristic of ERFURT BINDINGS, having the long, narrow center panel enclosed in a broad border, with all lines crossing at the ends to form squares in the corners.

Little is known of Fogel after 1460. All of his extant signed bindings are thought to have been bound at Erfurt before 1460, and by 1461 some of his stamps were being used in conjunction with others and without his signature on the bindings, but it is not known whether he retired from binding or just stopped signing his bindings. In 1462 his lute player and rope knot finishing tools appear on a binding signed by Paulus Lehener. It is possible, although probably unlikely, that he discarded some tools and acquired others.

citations: Goldschmidt, Ernst Philip. Gothic and Renaissance bookbindings. 2nd ed. Amsterdam. Israel. 1967. 2 vol.


foil

norm: foil

text: See: BLOCKING FOIL.


fold and dye papers

norm: fold and dye papers

text: Decorative end- and cover-papers which have been folded (in parallel folds several times or into accordion pleats) and painted with color along the edges and corners, or dipped into a dye or paint mixture. Japanese papers are usually used in this technique.

citations: Johnson, Pauline. Creative bookbinding. Seattle. University of Washington Press. 1963.


fold binder

norm: fold binder

text: One of the simplest forms of "binding," consisting of a sheet of cover stock with a series of scores running vertically and extending outward from the center fold to allow for expansion. The grain of the cover stock should run from head to tail so as to facilitate folding and scoring.

citations: Grimm, Francis W. A primer to bookbinding. Boston. Houghton Mifflin. 1939.


fold sewing

norm: fold sewing

text: A general term applied to sewing a book through the folds of the sections. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; FRENCH SEWING; MACHINE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING; TAPE SEWING (1)


fold to paper

norm: fold to paper

text: An instruction to the binder to fold the printed sheets of a book so that the edges of the leaves and bolts are even. Cf: FOLD TO PRINT.

citations: Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


fold to print

norm: fold to print

variant: fold to register

text: An instruction to the binder to fold the printed sheets of a book to register, i.e., the edges of the printed areas are to be placed exactly over one another. C: FOLD TO PAPER.


folded book

norm: folded book

variant: folding book

text: A form of book consisting of a long strip of paper folded "concertina-wise" and attached at one or both ends to stiff covers. The "folded book" is common in the Orient but much less so in other parts of the world, except in books of an unusual nature, such as books of a pictorial nature with views of places and/or panoramas.


folder

norm: folder

text: 1. A thin length of wood, bone, ivory, or other material, from 6 to 12 inches long, and 1 to 1 1/2 inches wide. The typical folder is approximately 1/8 inch thick. It is tapered to the edges, has rounded edges and ends, and is used in folding sheets by hand and cutting bolts, and also in numerous binding operations. 2. See: FOLDING MACHINES. 3. A publication consisting of one sheet of paper folded to make two or more leaves but not stitched or cut. 4. A large sheet of stiff paper, usually manila, folded once. It has a projection or tag for heading at the top of the rear portion.

citations: Lewis, Arthur William. Basic bookbinding. New York. Dover, 1957.


folder

text: This is a flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding the sheets and in many other manipulations. Also applied to a female engaged in folding sheets.


folder

text: A flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding sheets, and in many other manipulations; called also a folding stick. A female engaged in folding sheets.


folder

text: a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper knife, used in folding sheets and in various other operations.


folder

text: A flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding the sheets and in many other manipulations. Also applied to the person engaged in folding sheets.


folding

norm: folding

text:
The process of folding flat printed sheets into sections. The number of leaves in a single folded sheet is always a multiple of two: 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 leaves, giving 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 pages respectively. Sections with 6, 12, 18 etc., leaves may be obtained by the use of other than standard types of folding, or by the use of more than one sheet, e.g., an envelope fold followed by a right angle fold will give 6 leaves (12 pages), or a full sheet folded three times, plus a half sheet folded twice and insetted within the full sheet will give a section of 12 leaves (24 pages). Although a single sheet of paper can be folded nine times, in bookwork it is unusual to find a sheet folded more than four times, and most sheets are slit or perforated if they are to be folded at right angles more than twice, so as to reduce wrinkling and buckling.

The principal folds are the parallel (or buckle) and right angle, with the latter being the most commonly used fold in bookwork. The parallel fold is generally used for very narrow books, or for those that are printed TWO UP.

The third most commonly used fold, though used far less than either of the preceding, is the concertina fold, which is used for maps and folders, as well as for some book sections.

Almost all folding today is done by machine; however, in the early days of the folding machine, the work was so inaccurate that good folding could be done only by hand.

Folding is done "to the paper" or "to the print," i.e., register. See also: FOLD TO PAPER; FOLD TO PRINT; FOLDING MACHINES; IMPOSITION; REGISTER (4).

citations: Clowes, William Beaufoy. A guide to printing. London. Heineman. 1963.

citations: Jennett, Sean. The making of books. 4th ed. New York. Praeger. 1967.

citations: Martin, A. G. Finishing processes in printing. New York. Focal Press. 1972.

citations: Melcher, Daniel, and Nancy Larrick. Printing and promotion handbook …3rd ed. New York. McGraw-Hill. 1966.

citations: U.S. Government Printing Office. Theory and practice of bookbinding. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962.

citations: Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.


FOLDING

text:
In the warehouse. As the person who collates the books turns them, the gatherings lie ready to be folded, and as they are pushed a little over each other they are readily taken up separately; they are knocked up at the ends and sides, and evenly folded in the back, which is rubbed down with a folder; after this, from a dozen to twenty-five gatherings in thickness are knocked up together and put into the press, which is thus filled and screwed down. After lying a sufficient time in the press, they are taken out and are ready for booking.

Books are never folded across a page; of course some require to be folded the shortest way of the paper, and some the longest way.


folding book

norm: folding book

text: See: FOLDED (FOLDING) BOOK,


folding endurance

norm: folding endurance

text:
The number of folds which a specimen (usually paper) will withstand before failure, under controlled conditions in a specified instrument. In the usual test, a specimen is subjected repeatedly to double folds through a wide angle while under tension.

Folding endurance is a very important indication of the durability of archival papers. The test is usually conducted in an environmental room. A decline in folding endurance is the most sensitive indicator of aging and deterioration of paper.

citations: American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

citations: Britt, Kenneth W., ed. Handbook of pulp and paper technology. 2nd ed. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970.


folding in gangs

norm: folding in gangs

text: A method of folding printed sheets by means of a folding machine that folds a large sheet into several sections in one operation. As the sheet passes through the machine, it is folded, cut into sections, the heads are slit and the sections are then delivered singly or inset.

citations: Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


FOLDING MACHINE

norm: folding machine

text: A machine invented to fold sheets, generally used in newspaper offices.


folding machines

norm: folding machines

text:
Machines that fold flat printed sheets into sections. The two main features of modern folding machines are: 1) the knife which dips between two rotating rollers that form a "nip;" and 2) the plate that forms an envelope into which the sheet is propelled, bending or buckling it along a desired line as it makes its exit from the plate.

Three main types of folding machines are in use today: the knife folder, buckle (or plate) folder, and combination folders, which are machines that employ both knife and buckle folding in different stages in the same machine. All three types are designed to take standard sizes of paper and are suitable for different types and classes of work.

In the knife folder, a blunt-edged knife is set parallel with and above the slot formed by the two rollers. The rollers revolve continuously so that when a sheet is placed over them and the knife descends, the paper is caught between the rollers and carried away, a fold being made where the knife made contact. In practice the sheets are fed one at a time to stops, either by hand or by mechanical feeders, and are carried by moving tapes beneath the knife where they are precisely positioned mechanically for folding. The knife having descended, the sheet, now folded once, is carried by rollers and tapes to a second unit of knife and rollers where a second fold is made, then a third fold, etc., the folded sheets (now sections) being delivered to a stacker. If any knife is at right angles to the previous unit a fold at right angles to the previous fold is made; however, if the machine is constructed with the folding units parallel to preceding folds then parallel folds are made. If it is desired to slit the sheet into individual sections during folding, the sheet will travel through rotary slitters when passing from one folding unit to the next, and the individual sections of the sheet will be conveyed to individual folding units. In this manner, a sheet printed with 64 pages can be slit into four parts producing four individual 16-page sections. Machines are normally provided with perforators which perforate the bolts, thus preventing wrinkling and buckling.

Buckle folders work on a different principle. The sheet is fed end first between a pair of continuously revolving rollers and the leading edge is guided between two closely spaced plates, the plane of the plates being at an angle of 45° to the plane of feeding. The plates are fitted with internal adjustable stops, and when the leading edge of the sheet hits these stops further forward motion is prevented. The latter half of the sheet, however, is still being propelled forward by the rollers and, being already bent at an angle of 45°, the sheet buckles at the point of entry to the plates. The buckle is gripped between the lower roller and a third roller in contact with it and the buckle passes between these rollers, thus forming a fold. The portion of the sheet between the plates is immediately withdrawn by this action, leaving the mechanism clear for the next sheet. The sheet continues to be propelled by rollers and the folded edge may be deflected into a second and then third plate, producing additional folds parallel to the first. Buckle folders frequently incorporate knife folding units, the knives being used to make folds at right angles to the parallel buckle fold. As with knife folding machines, perforators and slitters are incorporated for use at various stages of folding.

Buckle folders are generally run at higher speeds than knife folders, but knife folders are used in book work because they are better adapted for handling a greater diversity of papers. The largest knife folders will fold a flat sheet of 128 pages, producing four 32-page sections, each with four folds. Buckle folders, in their most complex form, can produce almost any series of folds, but, in general, they are used more for the folding of advertising matter than for book work.

The first folding machine is believed to have been introduced in about 1850 by a man named Blake. In 1856, Cyrus Chambers, Jr., patented and sold a folding machine to the Lippincott Publishing Company. Although the accuracy of early folders was poor, with hand folding still predominating for better grade work, development of the folding machine after 1862 was rapid, and in 1873 a machine was patented that would fold a 16-page section and one of 8 pages, inset the latter, and paste it in place. That same year devices to cut and slit paper as it went through the machine were introduced. Automatic feeders were also developed, one being patented in 1855.

Modern folding machines are available in many sizes, capable of folding sheets measuring 4 by 4 inches up to 26 by 60 inches and, in special cases, even up to 50 by 74 inches.

citations: Book Manufacturers' Institute. Helpful aids in book production. New York. Book Manufacturers' Institute. 1953.

citations: Cuneo (John F.) Co. Plan for a good book…Chicago. John F. Cuneo Co. 1951.

citations: Hutchings, Ernest A. D. A survey of printing processes. London. Heinemann. 1970.

citations: Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.


folding needle

norm: folding needle

text: A needle, usually of steel imbedded in a wooden handle, and used by some bookbinders in tight places for such work as mitering covers and turning-in on slipcases. It is also used at times for scoring.


folding stick

norm: folding stick

text: A long, thin polished piece of wood, bone, plastic, or other material, used when folding paper by hand to crease the sheet without soiling or otherwise damaging it. See also: FOLDER (1).

citations: Horton, Carolyn. Cleaning and preserving bindings and related materials. Chicago. American Library Association. (Conservation of library materials pamphlet no. l; Library Technology Project publications, no. 16). 1969.


folding strength

norm: folding strength

text: See: FOLDING ENDURANCE.


foldings

norm: foldings

text: A general term applied to printed sheets which have been folded in various ways to form sections. Foldings from 4 to 128 are given in the table provided below.


foldouts

norm: foldouts

text: Inserts that are larger than the trim size of the book or other publication and which must be folded before insertion. When they are the same height as the book but wider they may be tipped in, but when they are both higher and wider, or just higher, they must be LIPPED. See also: FULL APRON; THROW OUT.

citations: Stevenson, George A. Graphic arts encyclopedia. New York. McGraw-Hill. 1968.