twenty-fourmo

A sheet folded to form 24 leaves or 48 pages. There are several methods of producing a 24mo, one of the most common being to fold two sheets (separately) with two parallel folds in thirds, followed by a right angle fold, another parallel fold and insetting the second within the first. Also written 24mo or 24°.


TWENTY-FOURMO

A sheet of paper folded into twenty-four leaves, forty-eight pages, is termed twenty-fourmo.

Public domain (Project Gutenberg, pre-1930 text)


TWENTYMO

A sheet of paper folded into twenty leaves, forty pages, is termed twentymo.


twin-wire paper

A type of duplex paper produced by forming two webs of paper and then uniting them wire side inward so that the resulting sheet has two felt (top) sides. This type of paper is said to give superior results in offset printing.

Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology

US Government publication (Library of Congress), published openly in electronic edition by CoOL. Not a Gutenberg/pre-1930 public-domain text -- verify rights before reprinting rather than quoting.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


twisted pineapple

A decorative ornament found on several English and French rolls, and consisting of twisted stems interrupted at intervals by conventional pineapples.

Oldham, James Basil. English blind-stamped bindings. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1952.


TWO LINE DOUBLE PICA

The name of a type equal to four Small Picas, or to two Double Picas; the next size larger than Two Line Great Primer, and smaller than Trafalgar. It is not enumerated by Moxon in his list. See Types.


TWO LINE ENGLISH

The name of a type, the next size larger than Two Line Pica, and smaller than Two Line Great Primer. It is equal to two English bodies. See Types.


TWO LINE GREAT PRIMER

The name of a type, the next size larger than Two Line English, and smaller than Two Line Double Pica. It is not enumerated in Moxon’s list of the sizes of types. See Types.


TWO LINE LETTERS

Capitals that are equal to two bodies of any specific sized type. There are Two Line Pearl, Two Line Nonpareil, &c., increasing regularly to a Two Line Great Primer. They are used for lines in titles and jobs, being so cast that the face covers the whole of the square of the shank: they do not take so much room in depth as the regular capitals of the same sized face, and are more convenient where the matter is crowded; the face of the letter having also a stronger stem, gives an additional variety in the effect. See Full-faced Letter.


TWO LINE PICA

The name of a type, equal to two Picas; the next size larger than Double Pica, and smaller than Two Line English. Moxon does not enumerate this size in his list. See Types.


two on

See notes on the electronic edition

A method of sewing a book by hand in which two sections are sewn on a single length of thread from kettle stitch to kettle stitch. After the first (or first two or three) section is sewn ALL ALONG, two sections at a time are placed in the sewing frame, and the sewing alternates from section to section. There are several techniques of sewing two on, a common method being to alternate from one section to the next at each cord. Whatever the method used, two sections receive as many stitches as does one in the all along method, and when sewing on five cords, alternating sections received two and three stitches, respectively.

Sewing two on was quite common until the last quarter of the 19th century, at which time sewing machines began to be used in trade (edition) binding. Even the thinnest books were sewn two on, not so much to reduce sewing swell as to reduce costs. Sewing two on today is used in fine binding only to reduce swell. Also called "two sheets on" and "off and on." See also: THREE ON.

Coutts, Henry T., and George A. Stephen. Manual of library bookbinding; practical and historical. London. Libraco. 1911.

Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


two on and one off

A form of the HOLLOW, consisting of the basic cloth lining applied directly to the spine of the book followed by a strip of heavy kraft paper three times the width of the rounded spine glued to this lining, overlapping the spine on one side only. The overlapping part is folded back on itself even with the joint, slid off the spine, and then folded over to make a tube. This is replaced on the spine and the superfluous paper is trimmed off. Depending on the way the hollow is glued on, this method gives "two on and one off" or "one on and two off." Variations of this technique may be achieved by increasing the width of the kraft paper to give "two on and two off," "two on and three off," etc. See also: SPINE LINING (1).


two page spread

See: DOUBLE SPREAD (1)


two sheets on

See: TWO ON.


two up

1. A method of imposing and processing two books (or periodical issues) as a single unit, all the way from printing form through all of the binding processes. The two books or issues are separated at the trimming station during binding. See also: THREE UP. 2. The process of printing two texts. or duplicate stereos made from the same form, side by side on the same sheet of paper. It is an economical way of printing short runs.

Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.


two-letter index

An INDEX consisting of thirteen divisions of two letters each. If Mac is used, two other letters, usually I and X are omitted, or 1, J, and K are combined and X is omitted.

Clowes, William Beaufoy. A guide to printing. London. Heineman. 1963.


two-line tool

A roll or fillet with two lines of designs, or two plain lines (in the case of the fillet), on the circumference.


two-shot method

A method of applying adhesive in high speed paperback (adhesive) binding. The adhesive binding machine applies a polyvinyl (cold) adhesive as a primer followed by a hot-melt adhesive. It is not as fast a method as the ONE-SHOT METHOD (1), but it results in a stronger hinge and good cover adhesion. See also: ADHESIVE BINDING.

Hutchings, Ernest A. D. A survey of printing processes. London. Heinemann. 1970.

Research and Engineering Council of the Graphic Arts Industry. Committee on Binding and Finishing. Proceedings of seminar on perfect binding…Washington, D.C. Research and Engineering Council of the Graphic Arts Industry. 1963.


two-sided sheet

A term used with reference to the difference in shade and/or texture between the felt and wire sides of a sheet of paper. The term is generally applied to dyed papers, and usually refers to a difference in the depth of color, with the felt side being darker and the wire side lighter. Two-sidedness in paper may also be produced by using a mixed furnish, e.g., long- and short-fibered stock, the short fibers (as they are lighter) being on the top or felt side and the long fibers on the bottom or wire side. Another form of the two-sided sheet is the filled paper, in which more pigment is retained on the top side of the sheet.

Crown Zellerbach Corp. Making pulp and paper. San Francisco. Crown Zellerbach Corp. 1958. 1 vol.


tying down

See illustration</> One of the steps employed in working headbands. The thread used in forming the headband is taken down the spine to a point beneath the kettle stitch and then back up to be wound around the core of the headband once again. The purpose is to anchor the headband solidly to the spine. In the early days of headbanding, tying down was done in the center of each section; today, however, it is usually done at every three or four sections and even then not always in the center.


tying up

See illustration</> The technique of wrapping cord tightly around a book from spine to fore edge, one cord on either side of each raised band. Tying up is done subsequent to covering, its purpose being to make the leather adhere securely to the sides of the bands. The term is also applied to the process of tying cord from head to tail at the spine so as to pinch the headcaps.

Tying up, which represented the first effort to mold the leather around the raised bands, was first used in the early 13th century. The technique seems to coincide more or less with the first use of the groove method of attaching boards. Virtually all books sewn on raised cords were "tied up" until early in the 19th century. Although BAND NIPPERS are now used in lieu of tying up, the practice is still employed in the restoration of pre-19th century rare books, primarily to give the appearance of the binding technique of the times.

That tying up declined after the early 19th century was probably due to several factors, including: 1) leather in trade binding was replaced by cloth; 2) sewing on raised cords itself declined; and 3) standards of finishing in fine binding were improving and neater work could be done without the use of cords and, in any event, tying up was unnecessary if the leather was properly prepared and drawn on. Large books were (and still are) tied up, especially when the covering leather is intractable. e.g., pigskin.

Indenting of the leather on the fore edge of the boards is prevented by the use of specially shaped wooden boards. See TYING-UP BOARDS. As an alternative method, millboard can be bent to shape. The leather of old bindings is sometimes marked by the pressure of the tying-up boards. because the cords used for large books were tied very tightly.

Horton, Carolyn. Cleaning and preserving bindings and related materials. Chicago. American Library Association. (Conservation of library materials pamphlet no. l; Library Technology Project publications, no. 16). 1969.


tying up

The tying of a volume after the cover has been drawn on, so as to make the leather adhere to the sides of the bands; also for setting the head.


tying up

The tying of a volume after the cover has been drawn on, so as to make the leather adhere better to the sides of the bands; also for setting the head-band.

The Art of Bookbinding: A Practical Treatise


tying up

Tying a volume with heavy twine after the leather cover has been drawn on to make the leather adhere to the sides of the bands; also to help in setting the head.


tying-up boards

Thin, sturdy boards with right-angle projections, used to protect the sides and fore edges of the leather of a book during TYING UP.

Middleton, Bernard C. The restoration of leather bindings. Chicago. American Library Association. (A. L. A. Library Technology Project, LTP publication no. 18). 1972.


TYMPAN

A frame covered with parchment, on which the sheet of paper to be printed is placed. This is the outer tympan; the inner tympan fits into it, and between the parchments of the two the blankets are placed, all which being run in receive the pressure of the platen, which produces the impression on the paper.

Mr. T. C. Hansard took out a patent, for “Improvements on, and Additions to, Printing Presses, and various Processes relative to Printing;” in his description of them he says,—“My first Improvement is the Dividing-Tympans, which are capable of being added to any Printing Press, for the purpose of printing double-sized sheets of paper, and then dividing or cutting such double-sized paper to the ordinary size of single sheets of paper. These Tympans consist of, first, the outer Tympan, of dimensions according to the size of the Press or Work required: the additions to which are, a plate of Iron, Steel, Brass, or other sufficient substance, about seven eighths of an inch in width; the back side of which is level, but the front side is raised in the middle, the centre part being about one fourth of an inch in thickness, and the two sides about one eighth of an inch only; along the middle or thicker part are cuts or openings, for the purpose of admitting the knife hereinafter described, leaving small parts of the plate uncut. On each side of the same, along the centre of the thinner part, is a row of small holes, at about half inch distances. This plate is fixed across the middle of the outer Tympan, to each side, being countersunk into the same.—2ndly. The inner Tympans are formed of two parts, having each part three sides, and moving on pivots attached to the outer Tympan; these inner Tympans, when shut down, are fastened in the common manner by hooks and eyes or buttons, each part when opened to adjust the blankets will incline back on the pivots. These Tympans I cover with black Linen of the most fine and even texture, rolled and hot calendered: taking a sufficient length in one piece to cover the one half of both Tympans, then folding it in the middle, and laying each fold along the side-rebate of the Plate over the holes, I then firmly attach it thereto by strong sewing through the holes; I then turn one part of the fold of the linen over the outer, and the other part over the inner Tympans, and sew, or otherwise fasten, the same around the iron work, or sides and ends of the Tympans, in the closest and neatest manner, letting the hooks, eyes, or buttons, and pivots, through the linen, and keeping clear the openings for the point screws by carrying the linen on the inside, in the same manner as in putting on common parchment; the same operation then takes place for the other half of the Tympans. I then take pieces of Velvet, Velveteen, or other uniform soft substance, which I attach, with the pile or softest side outwards, to the linen already described as being fastened to the Tympans, by sewing or pasting it to the outside of the outer Tympan, to receive the Tympan-sheet, and by this means to give a beautiful and regular impression of the Type: which mode of covering Tympans I also apply to common Presses.

“The Divider or Knife is made of a plate of Iron or Steel, about three-fourths of an inch wide, turned down at a right angle on one side, about one-fourth of an inch in width, and in length sufficient for the width of the sheet of paper intended to be cut, and this must be fixed so as to be exactly corresponding to the openings in the Plate before described; the part so turned down is cut into angular teeth, about a quarter of an inch from point to point, each tooth having two chisel-like edges, formed by being filed and dressed on the outside of the part so turned down; on the inside of the angle the teeth are to be finished all along fair and smooth. One or more of the teeth are then to be filed out at intervals, corresponding with the parts of the Plate left uncut. The Pivots or Joints of the Tympans and Frisket being accurately adjusted, the Knife is then fixed to the Frisket (at each end by screw or other connection) so that when the Frisket is turned down on the Tympans the Knife shall freely enter the Plate at the openings before described. The Plate and Knife now occupying the usual place of Point Screws and Points, those necessary articles are removed to the centre of each half of the Tympans above and below the Plate. If wished, the positions of the Plate and Knife may be reversed, by fixing the Plate to the Frisket, and Knife to the Tympan, or a Plate both on Frisket and Tympan, and Knife to the Forme, or Table of the Press, but not with equal certainty of operation. All these parts being properly adjusted, the mode of application is as follows:—For making ready a Forme or Sheet, the Tympan-sheet is drawn on the Tympan, as in the ordinary mode, and the Frisket pasted and cut out; but for working the first side of the Paper, the Knife must be displaced (or, which is sometimes preferable, two Friskets used, to be exchanged, one having the Knife, and one without). The whole of the paper being worked on one side without the Knife, the Knife is then replaced, or the Friskets exchanged, and the Reiteration proceeded with; the sheet will then be divided exactly along the centre, excepting at the parts where the portions of the Plate have been left uncut, and the teeth filed out of the Knife, as before described; which uncut parts answer the important purpose of keeping the double-sheet adhering as one, for the Pressman who may be pulling, to draw it off the Tympans over to the Bank, where it is finally parted by the other man who is beating, while looking over his heap, when six or seven sheets are accumulated, by means of a gentle pressure with each hand at each end of the heap. The white paper, or first side, is worked with four points, placed opposite to each other in the middle fold of each half of the double sheet, but for the Reiteration the two lower points are taken off, and the sheet kept in register by the two upper ones only. For cutting the sheet into more parts than two, I extend the same principle by placing knives and plates in various positions, or at right angles with each other.”


TYMPAN

A frame covered with parchment or muslin and attached to the press-bed to lay the sheet on before printing.

The American Printer: A Manual of Typography


TYMPAN CLOTH

A fine and even linen cloth, about an inch or two larger on every side than the paper worked on: this cloth is wetted, and the water wrung out again, so that it remains only moist: it is laid on the tympan instead of a tympan sheet, the under sides of the corners pasted to the tympan, and worked upon as a tympan sheet for the reiteration. It is used to save paper, and it is repeatedly washed to clear it of the ink that sets off on it.—M. It is not used now, but set-off sheets are substituted for it.


TYMPAN HOOKS

Small hooks fixed on the upper side of the outer tympan, which assist in keeping the inner tympan in its place.

There are four of them, two on the off side and two on the near side, screwed to the tympan, but not so tight as to prevent them turning round on the screws as centres; there are four eyes screwed on the inner tympan, opposite to them, and the hooks turn into these eyes and draw the sides of the tympans together, and assist in tightening the parchment of the inner tympan, and prevent its moving. In iron presses, instead of eyes, buttons are used on the inner tympan, and the hooks turn round them under the heads, and produce the same effect.


TYMPAN JOINTS

The joints by which the outer tympan is attached to the carriage, on which it works. They are riveted to the bottom end of the tympan by one of the sides, and the other side has an upright notch cut in it: at the back of the hind part of the coffin are fixed two projecting screws, at the same distance from each other as the notches in the joints; these screws have a square plate or washer on each of them, and a flat-headed female screw; the tympan joints are slipped over these screws by the notches, so that they bestride each screw, and are confined by the female screw and washer. The tympan can thus be adjusted to any height, by loosening the screws and sliding the joints up or down. The pin that connects the two parts of the joints is stout, and made to slip out when necessary. These joints should be particularly well made, and have no play; if they have, it will cause maculing and doubles in the work.


TYMPAN SHEET

A sheet of paper pasted on the tympan at the corners, as a standing mark to lay all the other sheets exactly even upon, while the white paper is working.—M. It is now also used for the reiteration. When a pressman has laid a form on the press stone, and fixed it in its situation, he takes a sheet of its own paper, or a sheet of some other paper of the same size, and folds it exactly, so that the folds shall be his guide for laying it on the form; he then lays a sheet of waste paper on the form to preserve his tympan sheet clean, and places it truly on the form over the other, by means of the folds falling on the middle of the crosses and feeling the types through it with his fingers, so that the margin at both sides of the sheet shall be precisely equal, as also at both ends; he wets his tympan slightly, to take out the indentions made by the types of a preceding form, and generally rubs a very small quantity of paste on the parchment, being careful that there are no lumps; he then turns the tympan down upon the form, runs in the carriage, and gives it a slight pull, to cause it to adhere to the tympan; he then pastes the four corners down, but tears off a piece of the near bottom corner, to prevent him catching hold of it, in the quick taking the printed sheet off the tympan, when working.


type

1. A small rectangular block of metal or wood, usually the former, cut on its top with a raised letter, figure, or other character, for use in letterpress printing, or in a lettering pallet for lettering the spine of a book. The nomenclature of a single piece of type for letterpress work has always been compared to a headless human being standing erect: a body, a face, beard, neck, shoulder, back, belly and feet. Type letters are formed with three imaginary lines: the "base line" on which the bases of capitals rest, the "mean line" along the top of lower-case letters which do not have ascenders, and the "cap line" across the top of the capital letters. 2. A number of such characters.

Karch, Robert Randolph. Graphic arts procedures. 4th ed. Chicago. American Technical Society. 1970.


type

Metal letters used in printing and lettering.


type area

The area, usually a vertical rectangle, or a page of a book, or other publication, which is, or will be, filled with printed matter.


type face

1. The printing surface of the upper end of a piece of type which bears the character to be printed or impressed. 2. The style, or design, of characters on a set type-e.g., Times Roman-and comprising all the sizes -e.g., 10pt., 12pt.-in which the particular design is made. Type faces are available in hundreds of designs, sizes, and weights.

Harrop, Dorothy. Modern book production. London. Bingley. 1968.

Melcher, Daniel, and Nancy Larrick. Printing and promotion handbook …3rd ed. New York. McGraw-Hill. 1966.


type font

See: FONT.


type metal

An alloy of tin, lead, antimony, and sometimes copper, used for casting type. 2. The handle or pallet letters used by bookbinders, which are usually made of brass.

Pratt, Guy A. Let's bind a book. Rev. ed. Milwaukee. Bruce. 1944.


type pallet

See: LETTERING PALLET (1).


type size

The measure of the dimensions of type, taken from the body of the individual type rather than from the actual printing area.

Winans, Leonard G. The book from manuscript to market. New 370. York. Grosset 8 Dunlap. 1941.


TYPE-HOLDER

An instrument for holding the type when used for lettering.


TYPES

The letters, marks, and signs, cast in metal, the larger sizes of wood, with which printing is executed.

The forms and proportions of types in the Roman character have undergone every change that the most capricious fancy could suggest. We have types of beautiful shapes and symmetrical proportions, but our type founders have diverged, for the sake of variety, gradually to a fatter face till the lines have become so thick that the letter has hardly any white in its interior, and when printed is nearly all black, with the outline only to guide us in knowing what it is; and on the contrary they have gradually gone to the other extreme, and produced what are called skeleton letters, which are formed of a fine uniform line; we have antique, the line being also of uniform thickness, but strong and heavy; we have letters with the strong lines and the fine lines reversed; we have tall narrow letters, and we have letters which look as if they had been pressed down, till they were considerably broader than they were high; we have letters drawn in perspective, with their edges towards us, as if they were marching away; and as for Italic, we have it now inclining to the left as well as to the right. The Modern Gothic or Black letter has not escaped this rage for change and variety, and we have forms introduced into it which would have puzzled our ancestors to know what they were meant for when the Modern Gothic was the standard character.

These changes and varieties have not been introduced as improvements either in the forms or proportions of the letters, but to produce variety and what is styled effect.

The scale of sizes of the respective types can only be looked at and received as an approximation to truth, as the letter founders themselves acknowledge; in fact there is no precise standard, for they cast according to the orders they receive from their customers: the following scale is a proof of this; Mr. Hansard, in his Typographia, gives the number of lines of each size in a foot as cast in the foundery of Messrs. Caslon and Livermore, which does not agree with the one I now give, which was supplied to me by Mr. Livermore in 1839, at my request, avowedly to publish, each fount having been measured to insure correctness; it was submitted to Mr. Caslon personally in August 1841, before printing, and revised, so that every precaution has been taken to prevent a mistake. The scale of the foundery of Messrs. V. and J. Figgins, as also that of Messrs. Thorowgood and Besley, were kindly furnished me by the respective houses. I have also given Moxon’s scale of sizes, which is the oldest that has been published, and which will show the variations in the depth of body which types have undergone. He prefaces it by saying, “And that the reader may the better understand the sizes of these several Bodies, I shall give him this Table following; wherein is set down the number of each Body that is contained in one Foot”—See Nicks.

Number of lines of the different sized types contained in one foot.

It thus appears that in 1683, the date of Moxon’s work, there were only ten sizes of types with specific names, while at the present time we have twenty-one; the following are our additional sizes—Diamond, Ruby, Emerald, Minion, Bourgeois, Small Pica, Paragon, Two Line Pica, Two Line Great Primer, Two Line Double Pica, and Trafalgar.

Canon is the largest size with a specific name; all above Canon are designated according to the number of Picas in the depth of the body; thus the next size larger is Five Line Pica, then Six Line Pica, and so on indefinitely. Twenty-four Line Pica is about the largest letter that is cast in metal, those above that size are generally cut in wood, as also any peculiar shaped letters. The German letter founders cast the face of letters in metal to a much larger size, and mount them on wood.

Minion used to be half an English; it has ceased to be so, and Emerald has taken its place, for English is now equal to two Emeralds: this latter is a size that was introduced about two years ago.

By an examination of the preceding table the relative proportions of the different sizes to each other will be ascertained; but to facilitate the reference they are here brought under one view.

Diamond = Half Bourgeois, also = ¼ Great Primer = ⅛ Two Line Great Primer.

Pearl = Half Long Primer, also = ¼ Paragon.

Ruby = Half Small Pica, also = ¼ Double Pica = ⅛ Two Line Double Pica.

Nonpareil = Half Pica.

Emerald = Half English.

Bourgeois = Half Great Primer, also = 2 Diamonds.

Long Primer = Half Paragon, also = 2 Pearls.

Small Pica = Half Double Pica, also = 2 Rubies.

Pica = 2 Nonpareils.

English = 2 Emeralds.

Great Primer = 2 Bourgeois, also = 4 Diamonds.

Paragon = 2 Long Primers, also = 4 Pearls.

Double Pica = 2 Small Picas, also = 4 Rubies.

Two Line Pica = 2 Picas, also = 4 Nonpareils.

Two Line English = 2 English, also = 4 Emeralds.

Two Line Great Primer = 2 Great Primers, also = 4 Bourgeois = 8 Diamonds.

Two Line Double Pica = 2 Double Picas, also = 4 Small Picas = 8 Rubies.

Canon = 2 Two Line Picas, also = 4 Picas = 8 Nonpareils.

It thus appears that Minion, Brevier, and Trafalgar, may be classed as irregular bodied letters, for they bear no specific regular proportion to any other size.

Minion was formerly half an English, but it has varied in the depth of its body from that proportion; some of the letter founders have introduced a new size between Minion and Nonpareil, and called it Emerald, and made this new type half an English; I think it would have been a preferable measure to have restored Minion to its original place.

This want of uniformity in the depth of body of the respective sizes is much to be regretted, as it causes serious inconvenience in a printing office, and might be avoided by the several letter founders agreeing among themselves and deciding what should be the standard for each size, and firmly refuse to cast a new fount to any other size, reserving the present variations for imperfections only, till the founts in use were worn out and discarded; we should thus gradually approach to uniformity; and whatever variations there might be in the face of the letter, still the quadrats and the spaces might be used to any fount of the same sized letter, without any risk of injuring the appearance of the work, and this would frequently be found of great advantage in poetry, figure work, and in light open matter.

This evil is not confined to England, but exists to a great extent in both France and Germany, and Fournier, an eminent letter founder who wrote on the subject, describes the evil, and explains the remedy which he invented and adopted, in his “Manuel Typographique,” published at Paris, in two volumes 12mo. 1764, of which the following is a translation.

“This article requires a particular explanation, because it is novel and obscure. I have placed it here in order to show the new proportions which I have given to the body of the characters, by the defined measures which I call Typographical Points.

“The last regulation of the Library, made in 1725, fixed the height to paper at ten and a half geometric lines. This rule is as easy to practise as it is to give; but such was not the case when it was desirable by this regulation to establish some rules in order to fix the strength of the body of the characters. At the time when this regulation was made, apparently no person was found competent to give correct ideas on that point, which was very important, as it would operate to correct abuse, and to give order and precision where there had never been any before. In default of proper information, a master printer gave as a rule the characters which he found in his own printing office, with all their imperfections. The law which was then obtained, not being founded on any principles, has consequently remained unexecuted, which is the reason why the characters have never had fixed and accurate sizes, and that this disorder still remains as great as it was formerly.

“In article lix. of this Regulation, it is given, as a fit body, that Petit-canon is equal to two Saint-Augustins; Gros-parangon is equal to a Cicero and a Petit-romain, &c., but the size that the Saint-Augustin, the Cicero, or the Petit-romain ought to have is not given, in order to make together the Petit-canon or Gros-parangon. Consequently this law can always be evaded, and it is evaded whenever any one wishes, without being liable to any penalty, because one person might make a body of Saint-Augustin more slender than another, and the Petit-canon might be cast to this double thickness, by which means the law would be fulfilled. Another person might make the body of Saint-Augustin more or less strong, and from two of these bodies he will cast a Petit-canon: here again the law is fulfilled, although in a spirit opposed to that of the Regulation. Thus confusion is perpetuated, until at length it gives one some trouble to make the distinction of the two bodies, of which the larger is weak and the smaller strong. It happens then that the characters of the same body vary more or less, and when two such are found in a printing office, the workmen mix the spaces and quadrats together, which spoils the founts.

“The Regulation has provided for this default, it will be said, when it ordains that there should be sent to the founders a certain number of letters of each body, in order that they might agree under pain of fine. But these letters which are thus proposed at hazard, and which are never given, would not have remedied the evil which it is wished to avoid. These pretended rules, instead of causing order and precision, on the contrary augment the confusion, by multiplying the parts without necessity. From thence it comes that the bodies of Petit-canon, Gros-parangon, Gros-romain, Cicero, Philosophie, Gaillarde, Mignone, are found, according to the Regulation, without double bodies, on which two-line letters can be made, of which nevertheless none of the bodies can do without. Here then are seven or eight bodies without names, useless for every other purpose, and with which the printing office is overloaded. Moreover, these combinations of the body of a Cicero and a Petit-romain to make a Gros-parangon, of a Petit-texte and Petit-romain to make a Gros-romain, of a Petit-texte and a Nonpareille to make a Saint-Augustin, truly proclaim little experience and capacity on the part of those who proposed them. The defect has been perceived, but no one has tried to find a remedy, and that because the printers, who are alone consulted in this affair, are not type founders sufficient to make proper experiments, and to give rules to a part of the trade which they do not exercise, and of which often they know only the name.

“This then is what engaged me to disentangle this chaos, and to give to these matters an order which they have never before had. I think I have had the happiness to succeed in it, with an exactness and precision which leaves nothing to be desired, by the invention of Typographical Points. It is nothing more than the division of the bodies of characters by equal and determinate degrees, which I call Points. By this means, the degrees of distance and the affinity of the bodies may be known exactly. They can be combined together in the same manner as numerical signs; and as two and two make four, add two, it will become six, double all this, you will have twelve, &c., in the like manner a Nonpareille, which is equal to six points, added to another Nonpareille will make together a Cicero, which has twelve points, add again a Nonpareille, you will have eighteen points or a Gros-romain, double all this, and it will make thirty-six points, or a Trismegiste, which has that number; and in like manner the others, as may be seen by a reference to the Table of Proportions which follows.

“In order to combine the bodies, it will be sufficient to know the number of Typographical Points of which they are composed. These points or given sizes should be invariable, so that they may serve as guides in the printing office, as the foot, inch, and line are used in geometry. For this purpose, I have fixed these points at the exact sizes they ought to have, in the scale which is at the head of the Table of Proportions; and that their exactness may be relied upon invariably, I have contrived an instrument which I call Prototype.

“The invention of these points is the first service which I rendered to printing, in 1737. Obliged then to commence a long, painful, and laborious career by the graving of all the punches necessary to form the establishment of my foundery, I found no rule established which could guide me in fixing the body of the characters which I had to make, and I was thus under the necessity of forming them for myself.

“The table exhibits at the top a fixed and definite scale, which I divide into two inches, the inches into twelve lines, and the line into six of these typographical points; the total is 144 points. The first small divisions are of two points, which is the exact distance which there is from a Petit-texte to a Petit-romain, or from that to a Cicero, &c. The scale contains in the whole twelve bodies of Cicero. It is necessary to measure by this gauge the number of points which I assign to each of the bodies. These measures, taken truly for each body separately, and verified on the Prototype, will form altogether a general correspondence for all the bodies of characters.”

“Of Height to Paper. The height of the characters called height to paper, that is to say, from the foot to the face which leaves its impression on the paper, is fixed by regulations of the book trade, and noted down by them, on the 28th February 1723, at ten and a half geometric lines. This law was established for rendering all the French characters conformable in their parts, in order that, passing from one printing office to another, by the death of the proprietor or otherwise, there might be no disparity among them. This law, however, though wise and good, is but partially executed, many printers having adhered to the height of the characters which they found already in their offices. Some countries, as Flanders, the Lyonnois, and others, which have the characters much higher by the ordonnance of the Porte, have preserved them thus, so that from these causes we see the characters varying from ten and a quarter to eleven lines and a half high. Those who have preserved them in this last way are among the dupes, because the characters which are according to the ordonnance cost a hundred pistoles, while those that have more metal in them are worth eleven hundred francs, because being one eleventh higher are one eleventh heavier.

“The officers of the chambres syndicals have neglected this part of the regulation; thus nothing is more common than to see in every printing office, the characters some a little too high and some a little too low. This makes it necessary to put the highest upon the tympans of the press within the places where the lines are too low. Sometimes many folds of paper are put under these low types upon the stone of the press, in order to raise the low parts up to the level of the high ones. This confusion does not originate with the founder, who is obliged to conform to the will of those for whom he works. Three parts of the French printers, at least, have their printing offices regulated according to the measure of ten lines and a half; and though there may be little inequalities which leave some of the characters a little too high and some a little too low, yet when there is only this slight difference, perhaps being sometimes but the thickness of a paper, the inequality is very inconsiderable. To avoid this confusion, and to make the founderies preserve one standard to regulate the height, and preserve it always the same, rests with the master. There are two ways: the first is a thin plate of copper or iron on which is made a notch of ten lines and a half high, and the other, which is in greater use and more convenient, is making a form of justification.”

The French have varied from Fournier’s standard, and have introduced fresh sizes since he published his work; when Fertel wrote, in 1723, he gave a list of nineteen sizes, but at the present time they have twenty-five; they are also changing their names, and now designate them by numbers, as will be perceived by the following list, which is copied from the specimen book of De la Tarbe, of Paris, 1835, to which I have affixed the number of points assigned to them by Fournier.

The German letter founders vary still more than the English or the French, for there is no standard body in Germany, every printing office has its varieties; the height is equally very different, but generally much higher than the French types. The German scale is formed by dividing their Petit, a size between our Brevier and Bourgeois, into four lines, so that each additional number is one fourth of their Petit. The names of many of the sizes also vary in different parts of Germany. The list that I give, with the number of lines to each size, I was favoured with by Mr. Edward Hænel, of Magdeburg, an eminent printer of extensive business; I have other lists, of letter founders, in different parts of Germany, but I do not think it necessary to insert more than one.

The German letter founders have types for printing maps, with which they form the line of the sea coast, with all its irregularities, its promontories, its bays, &c., the boundary lines, and the rivers. I had a map, printed in this manner, sent to me from Germany, which is very clever, and shows great ingenuity in the execution.

The names of German types, with the number of lines in each size.

Dutch names of types. From Smith’s Printer’s Grammar. 1755.

The Italian types are of a rather less body than the corresponding English types, but I have not been able to ascertain the precise degree of variation. I was favoured with this list by Mr. And. Pons, a printer at Parma, who originally belonged to the establishment of the celebrated printer Bodoni.

The Foreign Monthly Review for June, 1839, states that a type founder of Clermont, named Colson, has obtained a patent for a new material for printing types, which is harder, capable of more resistance, and yet less expensive than the ordinary composition of lead and antimony. It is well known, that types cast from the latter soon become worn, especially since the introduction of machine-printing. Colson asserts that the material is so hard that the types themselves will serve for punches in striking matrices, and that it will last ten years, without being more worn than the usual composition is in one year.

Type Founders. See Letter Founders.


typescript

A copy of a work in typewritten form, as distinguished from one that is printed or handwritten. Abbreviated t.s.


typewriter paper

Often a good quality paper, usually a bond cut to 8 1/2 by 11 inches. It receives the usual bond finish and has no special surface other than the customary bond paper texture. The quality of typewriter paper varies considerably, with higher grades containing up to 25% cotton fiber content.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.


typography

The art or process of printing from movable type, as in LETTERPRESS PRINTING.


ULTIMATE

The last syllable of a word.


ultramarine

A blue pigment occurring naturally in small amounts as the mineral lapis lazuli, and manufactured in very large amounts. It is a complex silicate of sodium and aluminum. Ultramarine is used as a mineral coloring agent in the manufacture of paper and leather.

British Paper and Board Makers' Association. Paper making; a general account of its history, processes and applications. Rev. ed. London. British Paper and Board Makers' Association. 1965.

Miall, Laurence Mackenzie, and D. W. A. Sharp, eds. A new dictionary of chemistry. 4th ed. New York. Wiley. 1968.


ultrasonics

Vibrations with frequencies in the range of 2.0 X 10^5 cycles per second. Ultrasonic vibrations may be generated by applying alternating electric current to quartz, tourmaline, or Rochelle salt, or by the effect of oscillating magnetism on a rod of magnetic material immersed in a liquid. Ultrasonics are used to seal documents within polyester foils by fusing.

Kingzett, Charles Thomas. Kingzett's chemical encyclopedia; a digest of chemistry & its industrial applications. Ed. by D. H. Hey, and others. 9th ed. London. Baillière, Tindell and Cassell. 1966.


ultraviolet light

Electromagnetic radiation of shorter wavelengths than visible light. See: WAVELENGTHS.

It has much greater energy than visible radiation, but also much less power of penetration. Ultraviolet light is capable of initiating photochemical reactions, including fading of pigments, dyes, etc., and, being destructive to all organic matter, it can have a deleterious effect on such materials as paper and leather. Fortunately, its poor power of penetration (probably) reduces its likelihood of causing much damage, except on the surface of a material. Glass is opaque to ultraviolet light below 3300 A, and most other substances (quartz being a notable exception) below 2000 A. Exposure over a period of years, however, conceivably could be damaging; therefore, fluorescent lighting, which emits more ultraviolet radiation than does incandescent lighting, should be properly filtered with ultraviolet absorbing plastic panels.

Grant, Julius. Books & documents; dating, permanence and preservation. London. Grafton. 1937.

Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957


umber

A natural product composed of magnesium silicate and iron compounds, and used as a coloring pigment. The "false" umbers are brown ochers produced artificially by burning the hydrated iron earths. Burnt umber is the calcined raw umber.


un-dehaired leather

A rarely encountered bookbinding leather, one that has been tanned in the natural state (with the hair left on). Although calfskin, usually a SLUNK, has been tanned in this manner for bookbinding purposes, most of the examples of this type of leather in bookbinding are the skins of wild animals.

Thompson, Lawrence Sidney. Bibliopegia fantastica. New York. New York Public Library. 1947.


unbleached groundwood paper

A paper manufactured from pulp produced by grinding wood to a relatively fine fiber length. The pulp is well screened to eliminate shives and dirt, and possesses relatively good brightness. The paper produced from it is relatively opaque, well closed up, and has a uniform printing surface.


unbleached sulfate pulp

A paper pulp produced mainly from softwood trees containing a relatively high proportion of resin, e.g., the pines, which are cooked for relatively short cycles. The pulp has a very low color, is relatively shivey, and is unsuitable for bleaching because of its high chlorine requirement. It is characterized by exceptional strength.


unbleached sulfite pulp

A tan or brown paper pulp that requires 2.5 to 4.5% chlorine to bleach it to a suitable white color. Characteristics expected of this type of pulp include softness, absorbency, cleanliness, and brightness. Peroxide is sometimes used in a single stage or final stage of bleaching to gain brightness and improve brightness stability.


unbound

A book that has never been bound, i.e., a "book" in sheets, signatures, or gatherings. The term is sometimes used improperly to describe a book which has been PULLED for rebinding.

Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.


unctuous

Leather which has a soft, full, oily feel.


uncut

The edges of a newly printed book which have not been cut or trimmed, thus leaving the "bolts," which must be cut before the book can be read. Until this is done the book is said to be "unopened." In rebinding a book, the term signifies that the edges are left in the original uncut state, with or without bolts as received.

Coupe, Raymond Richard. Science of printing technology. London. Cassell. 1966.

Klinefelter, Lee Miller. Bookbinding made easy. Rev. ed. Milwaukee. Bruce. 1960.


uncut

a book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have not been cut with the plough or guillotine.


uncut

A book is said to be uncut when the edges of the paper have not been cut with the cutting machine.


underbands

See: BANDS (2).


UNDERHAND

A phrase used by pressmen for the light and easy, or heavy and hard, running in of the carriage. Thus they say, The press goes light and easy <i>under hand</i>, or it goes heavy or hard under hand.—M.


Underlay

A piece of paper or card placed under types or cuts to improve the impression.


UNDERLAYS

Pieces of paper pasted on the bottom of an engraving on wood, to raise it to the proper height to print with types, &c. If an engraving be hollow on the face of it, then a small underlay under the hollow part will raise that part by means of the pressure in printing it at press, and prevent the necessity of using too many overlays.


UNEVEN PAGE

The same as Odd Page, which see. Smith uses the term.


unfinished

1. A book of which only part was published, the remainder never having been completed or published. 2. A completely forwarded volume that has not been tooled, blocked, or lettered. 3. A binding that has not been completed.

Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.


ungathered

The printed sheets of a book which may have been folded but whose sections, if folded, have not been gathered into correct order.


unhairing

The beamhouse process in leather manufacture of removing the hair (or wool) and other epidermal structures from hides and skins, following liming (or any other preliminary unhairing process), but before tannage. Unhairing is generally considered to be the second of the three major beamhouse operations, the others being LIMING and BATING. The term "unhairing" is perhaps limiting in scope, because not only does the liming-unhairing process loosen the hair and other epidermal structures, it also cleans, loosens, and expands the dermal fiber network and alters the swelling characteristics of the skin.

Unhairing may be accomplished by: 1) treatment with lime (calcium hydroxide), caustic soda (sodium hydroxide), barium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, or ammonium hydroxide, etc.; 2) treatment with lime, as in treatment 1, sharpened by the addition of sodium sulfide, sodium bisulfide, antimony sulfides, or other appropriate chemicals; 3) treatment with lime, as in treatment 1, sharpened by the addition of amines, such as methylamine, or degradation products themselves from the skins being processed; 4) treatment with aqueous buffer systems containing inorganic salts, e.g., ammonium sulfate, sodium chloride plus enzymes with proteolytic and/or carbohydrase activity, usually derived from molds, bacteria, fermenting plant materials or animal tissues; 5) treatment with aqueous solutions of inorganic salts, such as potassium perchlorate, potassium thiocyanate, sodium chloride or sodium silicofluoride; 6) treatment with hot water, i.e., scalding; 7) treatment with strong aqueous solutions of sodium hydr oxide, sodium sulfide, etc., i.e., pulping; 8) action of bacteria, or SWEATING (1); 9) treatment with ammonia; and 10) alternating cycles of freezing and thawing in water. The last two methods are not in commercial use; scalding is used only for certain skins, such as peccary and pigskin; and treatment with strong aqueous solutions of strong alkalis, e.g., sodium hydroxide, is useful only when the tanner has no market for the hair. Treatment by sweating is virtually obsolete.

Conventional unhairing involves loosening the hair by means of one of the lime solutions given above, followed by mechanical unhairing by machine. The unhairing machine is similar to the fleshing machine, except that the blades of the cylinder are smooth instead of sharpened, and the machine runs at a slower speed so that the spiral blades scrape or rub the hair off without damage to the grain surface of the hide or skin. The hair is generally gathered, washed, dried, baled, and weighed for shipment.

O'Flaherty, Fred, and others, eds. The chemistry and technology of leather. New York. Reinhold. (American Chemical Society monograph series, no. 134. 1956-65. 4 vol.

Reed, Ronald. Ancient skin, parchments and leathers. London. Seminar Press. 1972.

Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


uniformity

A term applied to the formation of a sheet of paper, i.e., the regularity of fiber distribution throughout the sheet structure, as well as other properties of the paper, including color and finish.


unit tools

The various finishing tools which have some device or design cut on the end of a brass shank. They are used separately or in conjunction with each other, as well as with line tools to form patterns. They may be "solid" or "line" in form, and when meant to be used by hand, generally do not exceed 3/4 by 3/1 inch in size; otherwise they become very difficult to use. A larger tool meant to be used in a press or blocking device, is more appropriately called a STAMP (2). Unit tools range in complexity from a simple dot to very intricate lacelike designs. The use of unit tools has declined in recent years, primarily because of the different conception of design prevailing today, but the same principle of building patterns from separate tools in still valid.

Burdett, Eric. The craft of bookbinding; a practical handbook. London. Davis & Charles. 1975.

Hewitt-Bates, James Samuel. Bookbinding. 8th ed. Leicester. Dryad. 1967.


universal book tester

A device designed to test the durability of several aspects of a binding, including the durability of the covering material, the strength of the hinges, the stiffness and resistance to delamination of the boards, and, to a limited degree, the durability of the sewing. The device consists essentially of a rectangular test chamber constructed of aluminum, lined with 50 by 50 mesh of No. 304 stainless steel wire 0.009 inch in diameter. The chamber is supported and rotated by a drive shaft attached perpendicular to the center of its base. Viewed from the front, the drive is inclined at an angle of 20° from the horizontal, and rotates in a clockwise direction (at a speed of 20 r.p.m.). The dimensions of the test chamber vary with the size of the volume being tested, according to the following table:

Test Chamber    Internal Dimension    Overall Dimensions

type           of Chamber       of Volume to be Tested

(in Inches)            (in Inches)

Width  Height   Depth     Width      Height

A           13      16       4       5 to 7     7 to 10

B           15      19       4       8 to 10   1O to 13

C           15      15       4       8 to 10    6 to 9

D           11 1/2  13       4       4 to 7     5 to 6

E           18      23       4      11 to 13   14 to 17

Each chamber is rounded to a 1 1/2 inch radius along the sides of the bottom to concentrate the abrasive stresses along the edge of the spine of the book. The chamber was designed in this manner to stimulate observed patterns of wear.

The Universal Book Tester is said to produce the following results: 1) abrasion of the shoulder of the spine; 2) impact and abrasion of the headcaps (if any), otherwise the edges of the head and tail of the spine; 3) light abrasion of the covers (sides); 4) limited flexing of the joints; 5) breaking and tearing on the internal hinge; and 6) occasional failure of the sewing, i.e., loosening of the sections and splitting of the spine.

American Library Association. Library Technology Program. Development of performance standards for binding used in libraries, phase 11. Chicago. American Library Association. (L. T. P. publications no. 10). 1966.


unlettered

A book which has not been blocked or otherwise marked with identifying information on the spine or cover. Before about 1600, books that were lettered at all generally had the title inked or painted on the fore edge, as books were shelved fore edge outward, and binders did not bother to letter the spines of books. Nor did they bother to letter them long after the practice of shelving fore edge outward was discontinued. Possibly it was a matter of economy and perhaps the PRESS MARK (2) sufficed. Labels on spines were unusual in England before about 1660, so that few books were lettered before the middle of the 17th century. Many owners wrote the titles on paper labels or directly on the covering material of the books. Gilt lettering on labels for those particular books was usually stuck on at a later date.


UNLOCK THE FORM

To loosen the quoins for the purpose of correcting; and also for laying-up; or for any other purpose.


unopened

A book whose "bolts," i.e., the folded edges of the sections, have not been trimmed off or opened with a knife. The term is not to be confused with UNCUT.

Cockerell, Douglas. Bookbinding, and the care of books; a textbook for bookbinders and librarians. 5th ed. London. Pitman. 1971.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


unopened

the book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets have not been cut.


unopened

A book is said to be unopened if the bolts of the sheets have not been cut.


unsewn binding

See: ADHESIVE BINDING.


unsized paper

A paper having no sizing material added either during or subsequent to manufacture, i.e., a WATERLEAF (1) sheet.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.


unsplit

A hide or skin in its entire original thickness. See also: FULL WEIGHT.


untouched

1. A book whose pages have not been rubricated or illuminated. 2. The edges of a book that have not been trimmed, cut, marbled, sprinkled, or decorated in any manner.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


untrimmed

A book that has not had its edges cut smooth in the guillotine, plow, or three-knife trimmer, and which may have unevenly projecting leaves, generally at the head and fore edge, or flat paper which has not been trimmed in the guillotine or other cutting machine.


upper cover

The top or first cover of a book, or the portion of the covering of a book over the front or first part.


UPPER HAND

When the spindle goes soft and easy, the pressmen say, it goes well over hand or above hand. But the contrary if it goes hard and heavy.—M.


Upper Hand

when the *Spindle* goes soft and easie, the *Press-men* say, *It goes well under Hand*, or *Above Hand*. But the contrary if it goes *Hard and Heavy*.


Uppercase

The case containing capital and small capital letters, fractions, &c.


upright

A book which is taller than it is wide. Cf: OBLONG.


urea

A nitrogenous substance ((NH4)2CO3), abundant in perspiration and urine. It is readily attacked by microorganisms which may result in the formation of ammonia compounds detrimental to the permanence of leather. It is also used in the manufacture of paper.


usability

The durability of a binding in terms of the circulation it is likely to be capable of withstanding before rebinding or replacement becomes necessary.


uterine vellum

See: SLUNK; VELLUM. See also: PARCHMENT.


utilitarian protective binding

See: GIRDLE BOOK.


V

The Roman equivalent of 5. See: ROMAN NUMERALS.


V through

A V-shaped device, usually constructed of wood or sheet metal, and used for punching holes by hand in single-section publications in preparation for saddle sewing by hand.

Perry, Kenneth Frederick, and Clarence T. Babb. The binding of books. Rev. ed. Bloomington, 111. McKnight & McKnight. 1967.


vacuum deposition

A process used for coating a film or other base material. The coating material is heated and evaporated in a high vacuum and condenses on the chilled surface of the material to be coated. Blocking foils are an example of vacuum deposition.


valence

The power of combining with another element or radical, i.e., the E number of atoms of other elements with which the atoms of any one element can combine directly. Hydrogen, for example, is univalent and therefore can only become attached to one atom of another element, e.g., it combines with chlorine, another univalent element, atom for atom, forming H-Cl (hydrochloric acid). Bivalent elements, e.g., oxygen, can combine with two, such as with two hydrogens, forming H2O. Valencies up to eight are possible.


valonea

A vegetable tanning material obtained from the dried acorn cups and beards of the Mediterranean (valonea) oak, Quercus aegilops, and allied species. The cups contain tannin in the amount of 25 to 31%, while the beards usually contain 40% or more. Valonea is of the pyrogallol class of tannins and produces a leather of firm texture and light color. It also deposits considerable bloom because of its relatively high content of ellagitannic acid. It has a fairly high natural pH (3.6) for a pyrogallol tannin, as well as a moderately high acid and salts contents. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS.

Frank Norman. Howes, Frank Norman. Vegetable tanning materials. London. Butterworth. 1953.


Van der Waals forces

The physical forces of attraction and repulsion existing between molecules and which are responsible for the cohesion of molecular crystals and liquids. The forces stem partly from dipole-dipole, or dipole-induced-dipole interactions; however, even nonpolar molecules and atoms exert a certain attraction on one another. Van der Waals forces act only over relatively short distances, and are proportional to the inverse of the seventh power of the intermolecular distances. The forces are important in the mechanics of ADHESION.

Miall, Laurence Mackenzie, and D. W. A. Sharp, eds. A new dictionary of chemistry. 4th ed. New York. Wiley. 1968.


VANTAGE

When a white page or more happens in a sheet, the compositor calls that Vantage: so does the pressman, when a form of one pull comes to the press.—M. At the present day it is termed Fat, which see.


vapor density

The ratio between the weight of a given volume of a gaseous substance and that of the same volume of another gas (usually hydrogen) measured under the same conditions of pressure and temperature. Vapor density is not an integer but may be compared with a value based on whole mass units.


vapor permeability

That characteristic of a material which permits the passage of a vapor or gas. The PERMEABILITY is measured under carefully specified conditions, such as total pressure, partial pressure on the two sides of the specimen, temperature and relative humidity. As the fibers of a material such as paper have such a high affinity for water (vapor), vapor permeability should not be confused with air permeability or porosity. See also: WATER-VAPOR PERMEABILITY.

Battista, Orlando A. Synthetic fibers in papermaking. New York. Interscience. 1964.


vapor pressure

The pressure which exists over every liquid (or solid). In a closed vessel, given sufficient time, equilibrium is attained, in which as many molecules leave the liquid surface to form vapor as return to it from the vapor phase to form liquid. The pressure of vapor above any liquid or solid at any temperature, when equilibrium exists, is called the vapor pressure of the liquid or solid at that temperature.


vapor-phase deacidification

A method of deacidifying paper which involves the use of a material that is capable of supplying the deacidification agent in the form of a vapor. Ammonia, diethyl zinc, morpholine, or other volatile alkaline substances can be used, but most are not permanent in the presence of high relative humidity. Another method, and one which has received considerable notice, involves the use of cyclohexylamine carbonate. The books are interleaved with tissue paper impregnated with the compound, while loose documents may be treated by placing sacks containing the compound with the documents in box files. The deacidification agent is the free amine given off as a vapor. No alkaline reserve is left in the paper by this method, and this, along with its disagreeable (fishy) odor, represent its chief shortcomings. Some authorities also contend that the vapor is potentially toxic. See also: BARROW, WILLIAM J. ; DEACIDIFICATION; DIETHYL ZINC; MORPHOLINE; NON-AQUEOUS DEACIDIFICATION.

Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957


variegated marble

See: TRANSPARENT MARBLE.


varnish

A solution of a RESIN in a solvent, such as turpentine, boiled linseed oil, etc., containing a drier, which, after evaporation of the volatile constituents of the vehicle and oxidation of the nonvolatile vehicle, leaves a thin, glossy, more-or-less uniform layer of the dissolved materials. At one time varnish was used to impart additional gloss to leather and cloth. Book jackets, showcards, and the like, are also varnished to enhance their appearance and improve wear resistance. Small sheets are usually varnished by hand with a brush, but large sheets are generally varnished in a varnishing machine. In the latter case drying in a dust free atmosphere is made possible by the use of a drying apparatus usually attached to the varnishing machine. Varnishing can also be done on letterpress and lithographic printing presses but the finish is usually not equal to that obtained by hand or in a varnishing machine. Paper to be varnished must be hard sized, otherwise the varnish will be absorbed rather than remain on the surface. Varnish is also used to dilute ink, or as an ingredient in its manufacture. The correct selection of printing inks for work which is to be varnished is important because some inks are affected by varnish.

Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.


VARNISH

With which ink is made.—M.


varnish

Used as a protection to the glaire when polished on the covers of books.


varnishing machine

A machine resembling a printing press in many respects and used to varnish printed sheets, usually for the purpose of brightening and preserving colors, as well as to impart additional wear resistance. The varnish is applied from a fountain by means of rollers, as in printing, and the sheets are then conveyed on a canvas web into a drying oven for drying in a dust free atmosphere.


vaseline

A trade name for soft paraffin. Yellow and white varieties are produced, consisting of semi-solid, partly translucent mixtures of hydrocarbons of the paraffin series ranging from C15H32 to C20H42. White vaseline is sometimes used to make gold leaf adhere to the surface of leather before application of the tool. Under no circumstances should it be applied to leather as a dressing.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


vat dyes

Dyestuffs that are insoluble in water, but the "leuco" compounds of which, subsequent to reduction, are soluble in dilute alkalies. In this state vat dyes have a great affinity for cellulosic fibers, e.g., cloth, paper, etc. After being impregnated with the reduced dye, the material is then exposed to the oxygen of the air, which causes re-oxidation of the leuco compound back to the insoluble state. Vat dyes are among the fastest dyes known, and, despite the development of new classes of fast dyestuffs, they continue to be used where high standards of color stability are required.


vat machine

See: CYLINDER MACHINE.


vat papers

1. A term sometimes applied to papers that are made by hand. 2. An English term for papers produced on a CYLINDER MACHINE.


veal

A leather produced with a grain pattern similar to, but somewhat coarser than, calfskin, and made from the skins of immature bovine animals which have not been fed on grass subsequent to weaning. The animals are allowed to grow to a comparatively large size, yielding skins larger and heavier than calfskins but smaller than cowhides. See also: KIP (2).

British Standards Institution. British standard glossary of leather terms. B. S. 2780: 1956. London. British Standards Institution.


vegetable glue

An adhesive made from vegetable materials, as, for example, by treating starch with an alkali. Vegetable glue is soluble in water and gives a high "solids to water" ratio, which justifies its use as a substitute for animal glue in certain applications. The glue lack the rapid initial set characteristic of animal glue but it can be made to give reasonably satisfactory results with careful use. Because it does not have to be heated, it offers the important advantage of always being ready for immediate use. See also: DEXTRIN,

Watson Aldred Auld. Hand bookbinding a manual of instruction. New York. Reinhold. 1963.


vegetable parchment paper

A paper made by passing a WATERLEAF sheet through a bath of sulfuric acid, or (at times) zinc chloride, under established conditions of time, temperature, and the like. The treated paper is then washed thoroughly so as to remove the acid or zinc salt, after which it is dried. The chemical partially dissolves or gelatinizes the paper, which is then regenerated when the chemical is diluted by the washing. This forms a very tough, stiff, smooth paper with an appearance somewhat like that of a genuine parchment. Because paper treated in this manner has a tendency to become brittle and to wrinkle upon drying, it is frequently treated with a plasticizing agent, usually glycerine or glucose. The waterleaf sheet is made from rag or (more usually) chemical wood pulp.

Clowes, William Beaufoy. A guide to printing. London. Heineman. 1963.

Grant, Julius. Books & documents; dating, permanence and preservation. London. Grafton. 1937.


vegetable tanned

Leathers that have been tanned exclusively with vegetable tanning agents, or with vegetable tannins plus small amounts of other agents, the latter being used solely to assist in the tanning process or to improve or modify the leather, but which are not present in sufficient quantities to noticeably alter the essential vegetable-tanned characteristics of the leather. Cf: CHROME RETAN. See also: VEGETABLE TANNING.


vegetable tanning

The process of converting the protein (collagen and its related proteins) of a raw hide or skin into LEATHER by means of vegetable materials. Vegetable tanning produces a relatively dense leather, one that is firm and solid and yields a high weight of leather per unit of raw stock. It also produces a leather that is pale brown in color, and which tends to darken upon exposure to natural light. Depending upon the finishing treatment employed, the tanning material washes out of the leather very slowly.

Vegetable tannages are used to produce bookbinding leather not only because of tradition, but because they produce leathers having a soft drape and handle (in addition to their firmness), which retain applied grain patterns particularly well. Unless specifically treated, however, vegetable tanned leathers have but little water resistance.

The classical method of vegetable tanning, especially where flatness of the leather (and particularly of the grain surface) is of great importance, as with bookbinding leather, is pit tannage-usually accomplished by means of suspension in a rocker vat. Traditionally the skins are limed and unhaired, and delimed to a pH of 4.0 to 5.0, bated (and sometimes drenched with bran or acetic acid). The stock is then suspended as smoothly and flatly as possible in rocker vats containing used or new tanning liquor of a relatively low BARKOMETER reading. The strength of the tan liquor is gradually increased (the stock being transferred into pits containing progressively stronger liquor) until the tanning has just penetrated through the entire thickness of the skin, i.e., it has struck through. Splitting, if required and if not done previously, finishing, etc., are then carried out after drying.

The traditional method of vegetable tanning was slow and expensive and, furthermore, did not always give the characteristics desired in the leather. Not only was there sometimes too much firmness to the leather, but frequently the color of the leather was not as pale or as uniform as it can be made by the use of more modern methods of tanning.

The use of stronger liquors, mechanical action, pH control, and control of the contents of acids and salts have enabled the tanner to produce satisfactory leather in a much shorter time, and efforts are constantly being made to reduce the time of tannage even further. Increased mechanical action, such as drumming, accelerates the speed of tannin penetration but also results in pebbling of the grain, unless some form of pre-tannage is employed. Some tanners in both Europe and the United States employ such systems, in which a comparatively short rocker pit tannage is used to assure sufficient tannage to protect at least the outer quarter or third of the stock, with the stock then being drummed with strong liquors so as to rapidly tan the interior of the corium. There are many variations of this method, ranging from stock struck through in the rocker pits, and then being tumbled in liquors of 100° Bk. or more for as long as 48 hours, to stock only partially penetrated and then being hung on sticks in slowly rotating rotors, being drawn through a comparatively small volume of tanning liquor of gradually increasing strength.

Leather to be used for bookbinding should be tanned to give a pale, uniform, biscuit shade-one which can be readily dyed and finished in a variety of colors. The tannins in the leather should be well fixed and not easily removed by wetting the leather, otherwise they may cause stains when the leather is paste-washed or otherwise moistened.

Light leathers, e.g., goatskins, calfskins, etc., in the finished state, are usually sold on the basis of area (price per square foot); therefore, there is not the temptation to fix an unduly high proportion of tan on the fibers, as is sometimes done in the case of leathers sold by weight. Overly prolonged vegetable tannage is to be avoided as it may cause difficulties in dyeing and finishing. See also: BATING; DRENCHING; FATLIQUORING; LIMING; SOAKING (1); SPLITTING (1); UNHAIRING. Cf: CHROME TANNING.

O'Flaherty, Fred, and others, eds. The chemistry and technology of leather. New York. Reinhold. (American Chemical Society monograph series, no. 134. 1956-65. 4 vol.

Reed, Ronald. Ancient skin, parchments and leathers. London. Seminar Press. 1972.

Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.

Waterer, John William. A guide to the conservation and restoration of objects made wholly or in part of leather. 2nd ed. London. Bell. 1973.

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


vegetable tannins

A group of complex hydrocarbon substances common throughout most of the vegetable kingdom, and having the capability, to a greater or lesser degree. of converting hide and skin, i.e., protein, into leather. Tannins are complex organic materials, and frequently have very large molecules and high molecular weights, on the order of 2,000 or greater, although it is still not certain whether they might better be considered macro-molecular substances. i.e., those with very large molecules and high molecular weights which break down into smaller fragments. Tannins were at one time classed with the glucosides because of the sugar groups that most of them contain but they are now more often regarded as constituting a class by themselves, as some, e.g., the hemlock tannins, do not have the sugar group in the molecule. In addition to carbon. hydrogen, and oxygen, some nitrogen, phosphorus, as well as traces of inorganic ions, may be present.

Vegetable tannins for the most part are uncrystallizable colloidal substances with pronounced astringent properties. They have the ability to precipitate gelatin from solution and to form insoluble compounds with gelatin-yielding tissues. which is the property which enables them to convert raw hide and skin into leather, consolidating the dermal network of the hide into firmer and drier structures of improved thermal stability, durability, and water resistance.

Because they are extremely complex substances, vegetable tannins are difficult to classify; however, they are usually considered to consist of polyphenolic systems of two types: the hydrolized tannins (the pyrogallol class), the main constituents of which are esters of glucose with acids such as chebulic, ellagic. gallic and m-digallic; and the condensed (catechol) tannins. which are based on leuco-anthocyanidins and like substances joined together in a manner not clearly understood. The pyrogallol tannins may be hydrolyzed by acids or enzymes and include the gallotannins (from plant galls) and the ellagitannins. which produce BLOOM (1) on leather, and which are characteristic of divi divi, myrabolans, sumac, tara, valonea, and other well-known tannins. The condensed tannins are not hydrolyzable and are characteristic of hemlock, mangrove, quebracho, wattle, and the like. The condensed tannins are more astringent, i.e., they tan more rapidly, than the pyrogallols have larger molecules and are less well buffered. They yield less sediment. or lose less upon standing, but the leather they produce often tends to turn a reddish color upon exposure to natural light. They also yield phlobaphenes or REDS.

The terms "condensed" and "pyrogallol," as such do not mean that the tannins contain these substances but simply indicate that dihydric and trihydric phenols are produced respectively when the materials are heated (dry distillation). Quite often the "tannin" derived from a plant material. e.g., oak bark. has characteristics of both groups and consequently is generally considered to be a mixture or compound of the two principal types.

The two classes of tannin also display different reactions towards acqueous solution of iron salts. The condensed tannins produce green-black colors while the pyrogallol class gives blue-blacks (a reaction important in the manufacture of some inks). Furthermore, they differ in their tanning properties. Pyrogallol tannins, for example, being less astringent than the condensed class, tan more slowly and produce leather of less solidity. In addition, when extracted from the plant they generally contain smaller molecules of tannin. and, being better buffered. i.e., containing weak organic acids and their salts, they resist changes in pH value when acid or alkali is added.

For a complete and even reaction with the skin or hide to take place during tannage, it is necessary to use the tanning material in the form of a liquor, i.e., an aqueous infusion of the plant material. Modern tanneries use extracts that are concentrates of acqueous liquors. the latter usually being concentrated under reduced pressure to provide highly viscous or even solid products. Other materials extracted are known as non-tannins (abbreviated non-tans) and may include: hydrolysis products of the tannins, starches, gums, hemicelluloses, poly-saccharides, hexoses, pentoses, uronic acid. organic acids (lactic and acetic), together with their salts, inorganic salts, proteins and zymoproteins (enzymes), if the temperature is not too high, as well as coloring matters such as brasilin, fisetin, and quercetin.

Vegetable tanning liquors are extremely complicated in their chemical composition, and the tannin/ non-tannin ratio, the color, and the particular substances involved have a considerable (and far from completely understood) bearing on their tanning properties and, therefore, on the quality of the leather produced.

Although tannins occur throughout the greater part of the vegetable kingdom, they are more prevalent among the Angiosperms, or higher plants, especially in certain Dicotyledon families, than they are among the lower types, such as fungi, algae, etc. The Gymnosperms also have classes in which tanning is well developed, e.g., the pines, spruces and hemlocks.

The Dicotyledons include many families in which tannin occurs quite freely, among which the most noteworthy are the Leguminosae, e.g., the black wattle; the Anacardiaceae, e.g., quebracho and sumac; the Combretaceae, e.g., myrabolans; Rhisophoraceae, e.g., mangroves; Myrtaceae, e.g., eucalyptus; and Polygonaceae, e.g., canaigre.

Tannin may occur in almost any part of a plant, including roots, stems or trunk, hark, leaves, fruit, and even hairs. It may occur either in isolated individual cells, in groups or chains of cells (the more common occurrence), or in special cavities or sacs. It may also be present in latex vessels and lactiferous tissue accompanied by other substances.

In the living plant, tannin is present chiefly in solution in the vacuoles. As the cell ages and loses its protoplasmic contents, the tannin usually becomes absorbed in the cell wall; in dead plant tissue tannin often accumulates in considerable quantities. Tannins often occur in green or immature fruits, the quantity decreasing as the fruit ripens. and they may also occur in seeds. often becoming more abundant following germination. Tannin is also quite prevalent in tissues as a result of pathological conditions, such as plant galls. Certain of these galls constitute the richest sources of tannin in plants, e.g., Chinese galls, which have a tannin content ranging from 50 to 80%.

The use of vegetable tannins in the manufacture of leather probably predates recorded history, and there is creditable evidence that they were in use in Egypt as far back as 5000 B.C.

The ancient Greeks and Romans were well versed in the art of vegetable tanning and evidence indicates that vegetable tannins were used in China many thousands of years ago.


vegetable vellum

A term at one time applied to a Japanese vellum paper specially prepared in imitation of genuine VELLUM.

Labarre, E. J. Dictionary and encyclopaedia of paper and papermaking. 2nd ed. London. Oxford University Press. 1952.


vehicle

The liquid portion of a material such as ink, paint. varnish, or a coating composition including the binders, adhesives, modifiers, and the like.


vein colors

The colors employed in marbling to produce the veins of the pattern. They are applied to the marbling size prior to the dropping on of the FRENCH (or body) COLOR.

Loring, Rosamond Bowditch. Decorated book papers…1st ed. 1942; 2nd ed. 1952. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.


veining liquid

A special marbling size designed to promote the formation of veins in the colors after they are dropped. The size is produced by mixing soft water, e.g., rain water, and soap, in the proportions of 1 1/8 pints of water to 2 ounces of soap. See also: SPRINKLING WATER.

Hewitt-Bates, James Samuel. Bookbinding. 8th ed. Leicester. Dryad. 1967.


veiny leather

The colored pattern of arteries, veins, and other blood vessels sometimes seen in parchment and vellum, or even leather, where the pattern of the larger vessels appears on the grain surface in the form of indentations. In parchment and vellum it is caused by insufficient removal of blood from the vascular system of the skin while in the case of leather it is due to bacterial degradation of collagen fibers in the vicinities of the blood vessels. Veininess usually results from the use of skins of animals found dead of natural causes, from improper or delayed curing after flaying, or for some reason wherein the blood is not drained from the animal immediately after slaughter. In some cases, veininess can actually enhance the beauty of vellum, especially if the blood vessels form geometrical and/or attractive patterns.


vellucent binding

A method of decorating (and protecting) a bookbinding utilizing TRANSPARENT VELLUM. The technique was developed by CEDRIC CHIVERS sometime around 1903, and is designed not only for the protection of leather bindings, but also to protect covers bearing colored designs (usually pictorial in nature) painted on paper, attached to the boards, and then covered with the vellum. The vellucent covering is also suitable for highly decorative designs because it is possible to further embellish the design by means of mother-of-pearl, irridescent shell, and the like, all of which may be covered and permanently protected by the vellum. The surface of the vellum itself can he tooled in gold, thus further enhancing the entire effect. See also: EDWARDS OF HALIFAX.

Coutts, Henry T., and George A. Stephen. Manual of library bookbinding; practical and historical. London. Libraco. 1911.

Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


vellum

Originally, a translucent or opaque material produced from calfskin that had been soaked, limed and unhaired, and then dried at normal temperature under tension, usually on a wooden device called a stretching frame. Today, however, vellum is generally defined as a material made from calfskin, sheepskin, or virtually any other skin obtained from a relatively small animal, e.g., antelope. Some authorities do not even distinguish between vellum and parchment, although traditionally the former was made from an unsplit calfskin, and consequently had a grain pattern on one side (unless removed by scraping). while the latter was produced from the flesh split of a sheepskin, and consequently had no grain pattern. The important distinction between vellum (or parchment) and leather is that the former is not tanned hut is prepared essentially by soaking the skin in lime and drying it under tension. For a description of its manufacture, see PARCHMENT.

Most medieval manuscripts, whether illuminated or not. were written on vellum. Uterine vellum was made in the 13th and 14th centuries from the skins of unborn or still-born animals. See: SLUNK.

Limp vellum or limp-parchment bindings were used frequently in the 16th and 17th centuries, and were sometimes gilt but were also often not embellished. In later centuries vellum has been more commonly used like leather, that is, as the covering for stiff board bindings. Vellum can be stained virtually any color but seldom is, as a great part of its beauty and appeal rests in its faint grain and hair markings, as well as its warmth and simplicity. See also: VEINY LEATHER.

Kenyon, Frederick George. Books and their readers in ancient Greece and Rome. 2nd ed. Folcroft, Pa. Folcroft Library Editions. 1971.

Lydenherg, Harry Miller, and John Archer. The care and repair of books. 4th ed. New York. Bowker. 1960.


vellum binder

A term sometimes used in Great Britain to indicate one who hinds account books (blankbooks), as well as other stationery bindings. It derives from the time when stationery binding was referred to as "vellum binding."


vellum binding

See: STATIONERY BINDING.


vellum painting

A painting executed on the under surface of TRANSPARENT VELLUM, or on white paper, prior to covering. Many vellum paintings were also executed on the outer surface of vellum, although by strict definition these were not actually "vellum paintings. See also: EDWARDS OF HALIFAX.

Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore. The history of bookbinding 525-1950 A.D. Compiled by Dorothy Miner. Baltimore. Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery. 1957.


vellum parchment

A very tough handmade vellum paper, produced in England, somewhat similar in appearance to genuine vellum. It is said to he extremely durable and not easily affected by heat, mildew, and insects. Its equivalent in the United States is ART PARCHMENT.


velvet

1. A fabric produced in a wide range of construction and weights from silk, rayon, cotton, nylon, or wool. Velvet is characterized by a short, soft. dense pile produced either by weaving an extra warp into a single cloth, which is looped over wires and later cut, or by weaving a double cloth with an extra warp connecting the two fabrics which are later separated by cutting. Uncut velvet, or terry, is sometimes woven simultaneously with the cut to create figures on the cloth. Velvet brocades, which are the most luxurious of all velvets, are made with gold and silver threads as an extra weft, or filling, the figures being wrought by hand, as with embroidery. Velveteen and plush are cotton or wool fabrics woven in much the same manner as true velvet.

Book covers of velvet, often studded with jewels, were produced, (for royalty) as early as the middle ages; however, velvet attained to its greatest use in bookbinding in EMBROIDERED BINDINGS.

As velvet is difficult to work. embroidered velvet bindings usually included a large area of applique, laid. or couched work in colored silk or satin, always with large spaces that were unworked. Such work as actually was done on the velvet was always in thick gimp or gold cord. 2. A leather finished with a fine nap on the grain side, in contrast to SUEDE, which has a (usually coarser) nap on the flesh side.

Davenport, Cyril James Humphries. English embroidered bookbindings. London. Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. 1899.

Prideaux, Sarah Treverbian. An historical sketch of bookbinding. London. Lawrence & Bullen. 1893.


velvet calf

A calfskin leather finished with a fine nap on the grain side. See: VELVET (2).


velvet Persian

A term sometimes applied to a sheepskin. The origin of the term i s obscure.

Forsyth, K. Marjorie. Bookbinding for teachers, students and amateurs. London, Black. 1932.


velvet wrapper binding

A form of protective covering for book covers, designed to be wrapped over the edges of the book. Used in medieval times, the velvet wrapper binding is frequently represented in Flemish paintings of the 15th century. The wooden boards, with no preliminary covering, are covered in velvet cut so as to extend above and below head and tail, and beyond the fore edge of the upper cover. The edges of the velvet were sometimes finished with embroidery of red floss and silver.


Venetian binding

A style of binding, obtained directly from the Near East, probably in the 1480s, the boards of which were composed of, or coated with, some form of paper composition that permitted the corners and centers to be stamped in sunken panels or shaded compartments. The entire board was generally covered with thinly pared leather, which was then coated with a colored lacquer and painted with arabesques in gold. This style of binding often incorporated the lion of St. Mark painted on the center panel, and was perhaps used as the official binding of the Statutes and Commissions of the Venetian Senate.

Dutton, Meiric Keeler. Historical sketch of bookbinding as an art. Norwood. Holliston Mills. 1968.

Zaehnsdorf, Joseph William. The art of bookbinding…London. Bell. 1890.


Venetian red

A coloring earth of a deep, reddish brown, which, in its natural form, may consist of nearly pure ferric oxide (Fe.,O) of the hematite type. It is prepared synthetically by calcining ferrous sulfate in the presence of lime. and is then known as "caput mortuum." It is used in coloring paper. Also called "India red" or "Indian red."

Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.


ventilating power

The capability of a leather to transfer water vapor from an atmosphere of higher to one of lower relative humidity.


verdigris

A green or greenish-blue pigment prepared by the action of acetic acid on copper. Verdigris, which is toxic, was at one time used to make a green marbling color. It is also very destructive to paper because it acts as an oxidation catalyst.

Crane, W. J. E. Bookbinding for amateurs…New York. Scribner. 1903.

Hannett, John. Bibliopegia; or, the art of bookbinding… London. Simkim, Marshall. 1848.


vermicular

Inlays which resemble somewhat the track of a wriggling worm.

Philip, Alexander John. The business of bookbinding for librarians …Gravesend. A. J. Philip. 1935.


verso

1. The back or reverse side of a leaf of an open book or manuscript, and one which usually bears an even page number. 2. The reverse, or second. side of a sheet to be printed. 3. The back of a separately printed sheet. which in former times was called the "folio verso." 4. A term sometimes applied to the outer side of the lower cover of a book.

Library Association. Library Binding Institute standard for library binding. 5th ed. Boston. Library Binding Institute. 1971.


vertical stroke

A device that can be attached to a shear or double-shear stroke GUILLOTINE so as to bring the knife down vertically, instead of in a shearing motion. It is used with knives of a special shape designed to cut irregular or fancy edges.

Gray, Niel. Paper-cutting machines…Chicago. United Typothetae of America. (Typographical technical series for apprentices, pt. 1, no. 10). c. 1918.


VESPER, or PLAIN CHANT MUSIC

The Gregorian Plain Chant is governed by two clefs, the Ut clef, and the Fa clef; which correspond to the tenor and base clefs in modern music.   Ut Clef. Fa Clef

The Gregorian Plain Chant is governed by two clefs, the Ut clef, and the Fa clef; which correspond to the tenor and base clefs in modern music.

Ut Clef. Fa Clef.

The use of these clefs is to point out the progression of tones and semi-tones, and to determine the key or tone of the chant, which is commonly contained in a staff of four lines; but as it frequently happens that the music exceeds that compass, the clefs necessarily change their places on the staff to give a greater scope to the chant; therefore on whatsoever line of the staff the Ut clef is placed, that line is called Ut, the rest of the notes following in the same progression. The same rule applies to the Fa clef,

ut     re     mi     fa     sol     la     si     ut.

The bars which nearly cross the staff, are used to separate the notes sung to each word; the bars which entirely cross the staff are used over some period in the reading; the double bar is placed at the end of a strain or verse.

The diamond shaped note is half the length of the square note; the notes with the tails are double the length, or equal in time to two square notes, (but these must not be mistaken for notes which, having tails, are only meant to tie them to other notes higher or lower on the staff.) A dot placed after a note increases its value one half. Sharps are not used in plain chant. Flats and naturals have the same power as in modern music.

In the following example, the bars are used to divide the melody into equal portions.

Stabat mater—in G major.

Stabat mater do-lo-ro-sa juxta crucem la-cry-mo-sa, dum pendebat fi-li-us.

The same in modern notation.

Stabat mater do-lo-ro-sa juxta crucem la-cry-mo-sa, dum pendebat fi-li-us.

Since the decease of Mr. Hughes, the punches, matrixes, &c. of the above founts of music types (and that mentioned at page 490) have been purchased by Mr. C. Hancock, of Middle Row, Holborn, by whom they have been considerably improved, and by whom the profession are supplied.

Old notation for these clefs

William Savage, A Dictionary of the Art of Printing, 1841

ut     re     mi     fa     sol     la     si     ut.


vinegar

A dilute solution of ACETIC ACID. It is used as an astringent to help close the pores of a porous leather before tooling. This operation is essential, as close tooling may ruin adjacent lines unless the surface of the leather is compact and solid. Vinegar also helps to raise the grain of leather and thus accentuate the pattern.

Fahey, Herbert, and Peter Fahey. Finishing in hand bookbinding…  San Francisco. The authors. 1951.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


vinyl coating

A relatively heavy coating of a plastic material applied to a substrate, such as a fabric. Impregnated buckram is an example of a cloth having a vinyl coating. The finished glossy, soft, pliable surface is obtained by heat curing.

Skeist, Irving. Handbook of adhesives. New York. Reinhold. 1962.


vinyl resin

Any of the thermoplastic synthetic resins prepared by the polymerization or copolymerization of various vinyl compounds, principally vinyl acetate, vinyl chloride, and vinylidine chloride. Vinyl resins are clear water-white, non-yellowing materials, some of which are used in the preparation of coating materials, foils, and the like. See also: POLYVINYL ACETATE; POLYVINYL CHLORIDE.

Mayer, Ralph. A dictionary of art terms and techniques. New York. Crowell. 1969.


viscosity

1. That property of a fluid manifest as a resistance to flow and measured by the tangential force per unit area of either of two horizontal planes at unit distance apart, one of the planes moving with unit velocity relative to the other, the space between being occupied by the flowing liquid. If the velocity of flow is proportional to the force applied, the fluid is said to exhibit Newtonian behavior; however, many colloidal dispersions and suspensions display anomalous non-Newtonian flow, i.e., the velocity of flow is not proportional to the force applied.

Viscosity diminishes as temperature rises, often by about 2% per degree C; it also increases with an increase in pressure.

2. That property of a cellulose paper pulp, or other polymer, expressed by the viscosity of a solution of the material in a suitable solvent and under specified conditions. Viscosity in this respect is related to the strength, as well as other properties of the paper pulp fibers.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Kingzett, Charles Thomas. Kingzett's chemical encyclopedia; a digest of chemistry & its industrial applications. Ed. by D. H. Hey, and others. 9th ed. London. Baillière, Tindell and Cassell. 1966.


viscosity coefficient

The tangentially applied shearing stress capable of inducing a velocity gradient. When a shearing stress of 1 dyne per square centimeter produces a velocity gradient of 1 centimeter per second/second, a material is said to have a viscosity of 1 poise.


visible cloth joint

An inner hinge made of cloth (usually cambric), constructed by joining the first flyleaf and the board paper. It is sometimes reinforced to the text block by mounting or sewing. See also: HINGE (1).

Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.


VISORUM

Some compositors use visorums. Therefore pricking the point of the visorum, most commonly upon the border or frame of the case on the left hand about the & box, they fold the leaf of copy they compose by, so as the bottom of it may rest upon the square shoulder near the bottom of the visorum; then with two pieces of scaleboard tied together at one end, they clasp both the copy and visorum between these two scaleboards, which two scaleboards pinch the copy and visorum fast enough to keep the copy in its place, and at the same time also serves for an index to direct the eye to every line, as the compositor moves it downward.—M.

This article is not used now; though it appears to me, from Moxon’s account, to be both useful and convenient.

A visorum


void fraction

The ratio of the volume taken up by air spaces (the voids) to the total volume of a material.


volant

A term at one time applied to a print or illustration hinged at one edge only so that it could be turned over for viewing of the reverse side.


volume signature

The number of the volume or part, or a letter indicating its sequence, placed on the same line as the signature, in order to prevent the binder from mixing the sections of various volumes of a work.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.