"agenda" format

A narrow book format, i.e., one where the height of the book is disproportionately greater than its width, to the extent of 3 :1 or greater, as compared with the usual ratio of 2:1 or 3:2. The "agenda" format proportions are similar to those of the consular diptych. The diptych was often adapted in the middle ages for use as covers of ceremonial lists and processional music, which had to be written in a format to conform with these constrictions; the "agenda" possibly stems from that format.

Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology

US Government publication (Library of Congress), published openly in electronic edition by CoOL. Not a Gutenberg/pre-1930 public-domain text -- verify rights before reprinting rather than quoting.

Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore. The history of bookbinding 525-1950 A.D. Compiled by Dorothy Miner. Baltimore. Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery. 1957.


"as is"

See: BIND AS IS.


"Cobb" paper

A paper named after Thomas Cobb, an English papermaker, who introduced it about 1800. The paper is thin, finely textured, wove, and generally somewhat drab in color, and subject to considerable stretching when wet. During the first half of the 19th century it was used extensively for the covers of "boarded" books, and large quantities were used for the endpapers of economy leather bindings in the last half of the 19th century.

Coutts, Henry T., and George A. Stephen. Manual of library bookbinding; practical and historical. London. Libraco. 1911.

Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.

Zaehnsdorf, Joseph William. The art of bookbinding…London. Bell. 1890.


"painted" bindings

1. A late 17th and early 18th century method of ornamenting the covers of books, consisting of landscapes "painted" with a chemical (possibly an iron salt, e.g., ferrous sulfate) on the cover or covers. The paintings were usually executed on fawn-colored leathers that had been paste-washed. See also: EDWARDS OF HALIFAX. 2. Leather and vellum bindings of the mid and late 16th century, which were tooled and painted in various colors, including gold, silver, green, purple, red, etc.

Dutton, Meiric Keeler. Historical sketch of bookbinding as an art. Norwood. Holliston Mills. 1968.


"super" binding

An obsolete term once used in the United States to describe a binding having the spine lined with both cloth and paper. See: SECOND LINING; SPINE LINING (1).

Holden, John Allen. The bookman's glossary…3rd ed. New York. Bowker. 1951.


"Sutherland" decoration

A manner of tooling in colors, usually carried out on vellum and analogous materials, and called "Sutherland" because of the patronage of the Duchess of Sutherland. The process involved the use of a resin, which was applied to the vellum. followed by colors which were sprinkled on and then tooled. Until this technique was introduced by the English binder George Bagguley, in 1896. tooling in color had never been successful and foils, of course. did not exist.

Solid tooling was not possible, but very beautiful and delicate tooling on bright colors with highlights in gold was done by means of fine gouges and pallets. Because the decoration was much too delicate for normal handling, Bagguley usually restricted his technique to doublures, and even then generally vellum doublures.


"v" endpaper

See: ZIG-ZAG ENDPAPER.


"w" endpaper

See: ZIG-ZAG ENDPAPER.


"window" copy

A leaf with an illustration, or other printed matter, on both sides, attached along its edges to a larger leaf provided with an opening or "window" so that the image area on both sides of the smaller leaf is visible.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


a

"The front or recto side of a leaf of a book. It is called "a" when the leaves rather than the pages are numbered. The back or verso side is referred to as b." See also: FOLIATION (2).


a pattern

A cloth pattern with a long, narrow grain. Cf: J PATTERN; L PATTERN.


A-stage

An initial stage in the reaction of some thermosetting resins wherein the resin continues to be soluble and fusible. "A-stage" is characterized by an initial lowering of viscosity. Also called "Resol. ' See also: B-STAGE; C-STAGE.

Skeist, Irving. Handbook of adhesives. New York. Reinhold. 1962.


aa pattern

The code designation for a book cloth embossed with a watered silk pattern over the T PATTERN, producing a MOIRÉ EFFECT. See also: MOIRÉ BOOK CLOTH.


abaca

A type of plantain or banana (Musa textilis), native to the Philippine Islands. The outer sheaths of its leaf stems yield a fiber used extensively in the manufacture of certain papers, e.g., saturating papers, where great strength is required. The fibers range in length from 3 to 12 mm, the average being 6 mm, and vary in thickness from 0.016 to 0.032 mm, averaging 0.024 mm. They taper very gradually towards the ends; the central canal is large, and the fine cross-hatchings are numerous. Also called "Manila hemp."

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Sutermeister, Edwin. Chemistry of pulp and pa per making. 3rd ed. New York. Wiley. 1941.


aberrant copy

A copy of a book that has unmistakable binding and/or printing errors and not merely simple defects.


abhesive

A material having the capability of resisting ADHESION. Surfaces are coated with abhesive substances to reduce sticking, heat sealing, and the like. Silicone paper is an example of an abhesive material.

McGuire, Edward Patrick. American adhesive index. Mountainside, N. J. Padric. 1962.


abrasion

The rubbing or wearing away of a material due to contact with another material. Some very large books, manuscripts, etc., may be damaged by abrasion because of the large surface area of the leaves rubbing over one another (particularly when the publication is being opened or closed), as may the leather coverings of books when they are removed from the shelves. Dust also, is a significant cause of abrasion of book papers and covers.


abrasion resistance

The ability of materials, such as paper, board, cloth, leather, etc., to withstand the abrading action of the same or another material, e.g., other paper, dust, a book shelf, etc. The property is usually measured in terms of rate of loss of material by weight when abraded under specified conditions and length of time. See also: RESISTANCE TO WEAR.

British Federation of Master Printers. Preliminary technical course in printing. London. British Federation of Master Printers. 1967. 7 vol.

Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.


abrasives

Substances used to wear down or clean other substances. Abrasives may occur naturally (e.g., diamond, corundum, pumice, etc.), or be manufactured (e.g., silicon carbide, fused alumina, metallic abrasives, and the like). The hardness of an abrasive is measured by MOHS' SCALE, which is arbitrary. For numerous grinding and buffering purposes, the graded grains of abrasive are bonded together in a vitreous rubber or metallic matrix to produce grinding wheels; for hand use, the grains are bonded to paper or cloth by means of a suitable adhesive.


absolute humidity

The actual quantity of water vapor present in a given volume of air. Absolute humidity is expressed either in grams per cubic meter, or in grams per cubic foot. See also: HUMIDITY; RELATIVE HUMIDITY.


absorbency

The degree of receptivity of a material to liquids, either in liquid or gaseous form. Measures of absorbency include: 1) the time a material requires to absorb a specific volume of liquid; 2) the rate of rise of a liquid along a vertical strip of a material, the end of which is immersed in the liquid; 3) the total area of a specimen wetted by the liquid within a specified time period; and 4) the total absorptive capacity of a material expressed as the quantity of liquid absorbed by a completely saturated specimen. Absorbency is of importance because paper, for example, generally has the ability to absorb or give up moisture depending upon the wetness, i.e., RELATIVE HUMIDITY, of the atmosphere around it, and, because the effect is not uniform in all directions. Because of the latter, the MACHINE DIRECTION of the paper used in producing books becomes an important factor in both printing and bookbinding. See also: COCKLE (1); WARPING.

A laboratory handbook of pulp and paper manufacture. 2nd ed. London. Arnold. 1961.


absorbent papers

A group of soft, unsized papers used to soak up water and other liquids. Although not sized, the papers may be treated with synthetic resins as a method of enhancing their wet strength. Absorbent papers include blotting papers, as well as the base papers used in the manufacture of IMITATION LEATHER, VEGETABLE PARCHMENT PAPER, WET-STRENGTH PAPER, and the like.

Reed, Robert Findlay. What the printer should know about paper. Pittsburgh. Graphic Arts Technical Foundation. 1970.

Sutermeister, Edwin. The story of papermaking. Boston. Warren. 1954.


absorption

A term used in the adhesive industry to indicate the capillary or cellular attraction of a surface to draw off a liquid adhesive into the substrate.


acacia

A genus of woody plants of the family Leguminosae. The sap and pods of certain species, notable Acacia arabica and A. senegal, are used in the manufacture of GUM ARABIC. Acacia mimoa, A. mollisima and A. catechu (also called Borneo cutch) are also used in the tanning of leather. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS.

Fahey, Herbert, and Peter Fahey. Finishing in hand bookbinding…  San Francisco. The authors. 1951.

Frank Norman. Howes, Frank Norman. Vegetable tanning materials. London. Butterworth. 1953.


acacia gum

See: GUM ARABIC.


acanthus

The name given a leaf of the acanthus plant (Acanthus spinosus) introduced as ornamentation in ancient Greek architecture. It has been applied in various modified forms in succeeding styles of architecture. In bookbinding, the acanthus ornamentation is a typical impression of the finishing tool cut to represent two such leaves pointing in different directions. The acanthus decoration was also used as a decorative motif by illuminators of manuscripts, especially Carolingian artists of the 9th century.

Oldham, James Basil. English blind-stamped bindings. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1952.


accelerated aging test

A procedure which is designed to indicate in a relatively short period of time what will happen to materials, such as paper, ink, etc., over a period of years in storage. It commonly involves heating the specimen in an oven under specified controlled conditions. Under ideal circumstances, the material is exposed to an environment which increases the rate of its degradation without changing its nature. It is generally accepted, for example, that heating paper for three days in an oven at 100° C is equivalent in its effect to approximately 25 years under normal library storage conditions.

Although sound in theory, accelerated aging tests are, at this time, of limited usefulness. The reason is that conditions of storage, which vary widely, have a considerable influence on the degree of permanence; also, it is difficult to verify empirically the accuracy of such tests except by experiments conducted over a number of years. Such tests have actually been made, although to a limited extent. It is known, for example, that the strength of paper tends to diminish in storage, and experiments have indicated that the FOLDING ENDURANCE declines to a significantly greater extent than such other properties as tensile, or tearing, strength; consequently, folding endurance tests conducted subsequent to accelerated aging may well provide a good indication of a general loss of strength. In addition, as to the rate of deterioration, the effect of heat is very much like that of natural aging under average conditions; therefore, it is probably reasonable to assume that heat affords a practical means of accomplishing accelerated aging.

American Society for Testing and Materials. Committee D-6 on paper and paper products. Paper and paperboard; characteristics, nomenclature, and significance of tests. 3rd ed. Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials. (Special technical publication 60B). 1963.

Britt, Kenneth W., ed. Handbook of pulp and paper technology. 2nd ed. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970.


ACCENTED LETTERS

“In English, the accentual marks are chiefly used in spelling-books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables which require a particular stress of the voice in pronunciation.

“The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscriminately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the former, and the acute on the latter, in this manner: ‘Mìnor, míneral, lìvely, líved, rìval, ríver.’

“The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable is this ̄: as, ‘Rōsy:’ and a short one thus ̆: as ‘Fŏlly.’ This last mark is called a breve.

“A diæresis, thus marked ¨, consists of two points placed over one of the two vowels that would otherwise make a diphthong, and parts them into two syllables: as, ‘Creätor, coädjutor, aërial.’

“A circumflex, thus marked ^, when placed over some vowel of a word, denotes a long syllable: as, ‘Euphrâtes.’”—Murray.

The c à la queue, or the c with a tail, is a French sort, and sounds like ss, when it stands before a o u, as in ça, garçon. To make a tail to a capital C, a small figure of 5 with the top dash cut away, thus ⦢, and justified close to the bottom of the letter, answers the purpose, when it is required; for the letter-founders do not cast this letter with a tail, neither in the capitals nor small capitals. Ç.

The ñ is used in the Spanish language, and is pronounced like a double n, or rather like ni; but short and quick, as in España. It is a sort which is used in the middle of words, but rarely at the beginning.

In the Welsh language, ŵ and ŷ, as well as the other circumflex letters, are used either to direct the pronunciation, as in yngŵydd, in presence; ynghŷd, together; or else for distinction sake; as, mwg, a mug; mŵg, smoke; hyd, to, until; hŷd, length.

Accents. See Accented Letters.

Public domain (Project Gutenberg, pre-1930 text)


accordion fold

See: CONCERTINA FOLD.


accordion-pleated fold

See notes on the electronic edition

A method of folding endpapers so that the pleat provides a hinge at the inner joint of the cover. The pleat also provides for expansion to allow the covers to swing open freely and not exert strain on the first and last leaves of the book. In certain cases, however, it can also create a sharp, knife-like fold which, if wide enough, may cause a brittle leaf to bend sharply and crack at that point.

Clough, Eric A. Bookbinding for librarians. London. Association of Assistant Librarians. 1957.


account book

See: BLANKBOOK.


account-book binding

See: BLANKBOOK BINDING.


account-book paper

See: LEDGER PAPER.


acetate

The salt or ester of ACETIC ACID. See also: CALCIUM ACETATE, CELLULOSE ACETATE, POLYVINYL ACETATE.


acetate envelopes

Envelopes, usually made of transparent cellulose acetate. used for the temporary protection of documents, letters, prints, photographs, maps, etc. They are superior to paper envelopes in that they substantially reduce the danger of acid transfer. Their use, however, is declining in favor of polyester envelopes. See also: CELLULOSE ACETATE; POLYESTER FIBERS.


acetate ink

An ink with special adhering qualities intended for drawing or printing on such materials as films and acetates.


acetic acid

A volatile, colorless acid (CH3MCOOH), prepared by the oxidation of acetaldehyde, by oxidation of ethyl alcohol, or by the distillation of wood. It is used extensively in the manufacture of CELLULOSE ACETATE, and has been used for washing leather bindings to remove grease prior to tooling. Being a relatively weak organic acid, as well as volatile, it is not considered to be particularly harmful to paper or leather, and is to be preferred to ordinary vinegar in preparing leather or book edges for tooling or gilding, as vinegar is likely to contain traces of sulfuric acid.

Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957


acetic ether

See: ETHYL ACETATE.


acetone

A colorless, volatile, flammable ketone (CH3COCH3), having a pleasing odor, that occurs in pyroligneous acid and can be prepared by dehydrogenation of isopropyl alcohol, by bacterial fermentation of corn mash, and by other means. It is miscible with water, alcohol and ether. Acetone is effective as a solvent in removing pressure sensitive tape from paper because it dissolves not only the adhesive but (in some cases) the tape itself. Its use is limited, however, because of its tendency to dissolve ink, and its highly flammable nature. In leather manufacture, it is used as a solvent for finishes. It is also used to prepare other solvents, such as methyl isobutyl ketone and mesityl alcohol, and as a solvent for paints, varnishes, lacquers, and cellulose acetate. Acetone decomposes photochemically to produce ethane, carbon monoxide and small amounts of diacetyl and methane.

Horton, Carolyn. Cleaning and preserving bindings and related materials. Chicago. American Library Association. (Conservation of library materials pamphlet no. l; Library Technology Project publications, no. 16). 1969.

Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.


acid

A substance capable of forming hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. The majority of inorganic acids may be regarded as compounds of an acidic oxide and water; where the oxide involved is that of a metal, it may exhibit amphoteric characteristics, i.e., act sometimes as an acid and sometimes as a base, depending upon the other materials present. Typical organic acids contain the COOH group, but other acid groupings, e.g., the sulfonic—SO3H, give acidic properties to organic compounds.

Aqueous solutions of acids have a sharp taste, turn litmus red, liberate CO2, form a metallic carbonate, and evolve hydrogen in reaction with certain metals, e.g., iron.

The 'strength' of an acid is measured by the value of its dissociation constant, a strong acid such as hydrochloric being substantially fully ionized in solution, and a weak acid such as formic being predominantly unionized.

Acids, and particularly the inorganic acids (because of their corrosiveness and low volatility), are harmful to paper and bookbinding materials. Their presence weakens the holding power of the individual links of the cellulose chains of paper, causing brittleness; results in corrosive effects in some inks; and weakens the fibers of leather. The source of acids in archival materials may be intrinsic or extrinsic. They may be present in the materials used in the manufacture of paper, adhesives, leather, etc., and may be left in intentionally, e.g., alum-rosin sizing; they may be introduced during manufacture and not sufficiently removed, e g., acids used in clearing and/or dyeing leather; or they may gain access during storage, e.g., sulfuric acid in paper or leather, resulting from the atmospheric pollutant, sulfur dioxide (SO2). See also: ACID GASES.

Kingzett, Charles Thomas. Kingzett's chemical encyclopedia; a digest of chemistry & its industrial applications. Ed. by D. H. Hey, and others. 9th ed. London. Baillière, Tindell and Cassell. 1966.


acid dyes

A very large class of dyes containing acidic groups, such as the sodium salts of sulfonic acids or phenolic groups. They are more soluble and have less tinctorial value than BASIC DYES but they also have greater light fastness. See: FAST COLORS. They do not form lakes with tannin. Acid dyes are used in dyeing leather, paper, etc., and their particular value lies in their ability to produce brighter, more uniform colors. They are normally applied from an acid dye liquor (acetic, formic, or sulfuric acid); however, unless applied from a neutral or only slightly acid dyebath, i.e., pH of 6.0 to 7.0, their use is likely to result in acid degradation of the material dyed. See also: FUGITIVE COLORS; LAKE.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Calkin, John Burgess. Modern pulp and paper making. 3rd ed. New York. Reinhold. 1957.

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


acid gases

Gases which may form destructive acids in paper, board, leather, and other book materials. Sulfur dioxide (SO2), present in the air as a pollutant, is one such gas; it can form highly destructive sulfuric acid (H2SO4), either by oxidizing to form sulfur trioxide (SO3), which in the presence of water vapor, is transformed into H2SO4, or by combining directly with water vapor to form sulfurous acid (H2SO), which, while a weak acid itself, reacts with oxygen to form H2SO4. It is suspected that the rate of conversion is increased by the presence in the paper of metallic catalysts, such as iron or copper, which may enter the paper during manufacture, but as yet there is no proof of this.

Kimberly, Arthur Evarts, and B. W. Scribner. Summary report of National Bureau of Standards research on preservation of records. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. (National Bureau of Standards miscellaneous publications, M 154). 1937.

Plenderleith, Harold James, and A. E. A. Werner. The conservation of antiquities and works of art; treatment, repair and restoration. 2nd ed. London. Oxford University Press. 1971.


acid migration

The transfer of acid from a material containing acid to one containing less or no acid. This may occur either when the two materials are in contact with each other, or by vapor transfer from one material to nearby materials not actually in contact with it. Boards, endpapers, and protective tissues, as well as the paper covers of books and pamphlets, may contain acid and transfer it to otherwise low-acid or acid-free paper of the text. Also called "acid transfer." See also: BARRIER SHEET.


acid size

A ROSIN SIZE that contains an appreciable part of unsaponified but emulsified free rosin. If, when diluted, the rosin size produces a milky emulsion, it is then known as "white size."


acid transfer

See: ACID MIGRATION.


acid wash

A solution consisting of hydrochloric acid diluted in water. At one time it was used to clean grease and other foreign material from the edges of books prior to gilding. It was usually applied after the initial scraping and sanding, and before the final light sanding.


acid-free leather

Ostensibly, leather manufactured without the use of acids, but interpreted by most producers to mean leather from which as much acid as possible has been removed. The removal of acid used in producing leather is a costly and time-consuming process, and calls for repeated washing of the stock. Tanning agents which contain a relatively high amount of salts of weak acids, of which MYRABOLANS is one, are said to protect leather against acids used in manufacture or those absorbed from the atmosphere.


acid-free paper

In principle, papers which contain no free acid and have a pH value of 7.0 or greater. In practice, papermakers consider a paper having a pH value of 6.0 or greater to be acid free. Such papers may be produced from cotton fibers, rags, esparto, jute, chemical wood pulps, or virtually any other fiber, with special precautions being taken during manufacture to eliminate any active acid that might be present in the paper pulp. However free of acid the paper may be immediately after manufacture, the presence of residual chlorine from bleaching operations, aluminum sulfate (alum) from sizing, or sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere, may lead to the formation of hydrochloric or sulfuric acid unless the paper has been buffered with a substance capable of neutralizing acids. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE.

A laboratory handbook of pulp and paper manufacture. 2nd ed. London. Arnold. 1961.


acidity

A condition or state in which the concentration of hydrogen ions in an aqueous solution exceeds that of hydroxyl ions. Acidity is probably the most important single factor affecting the permanence of archival materials. Acidity alone, however, does not necessarily connote destructiveness; the nature of the acid, i.e., the strength of its acidic properties, is of more importance than its quantity; e.g., a relatively small amount of sulfuric acid may have a greater destructive effect than a larger quantity of lactic acid. Because of this, both pH value and titration are necessary to achieve adequate evaluation of the potentially destructive effect of an acid. See also: HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION.


acme seal

The now obsolete name given a SEALSKIN, dyed and having a plain, dull finish and a natural grain.


acrylic resin

A thermoplastic resin prepared by polymerizing acrylic acid (C3H4O2) or methacrylic acid (C4H6O2), or a derivative of either, especially an ester, e.g., methyl methacrylate. One such acrylic resin, polymethyl acrylate, which is a tough rubbery material, is used, usually as manufactured in emulsion form, for textile and leather finishes, lacquers, and pressure sensitive adhesives, and as a mixture with clay to coat papers used in high gloss printing.

Battista, Orlando A. Synthetic fibers in papermaking. New York. Interscience. 1964.

Wilson, William Kester, and B. W. 368. Forshee. Preservation of documents by lamination. Washington, D.C. U.S. Department of Commerce. (National Bureau of Standards, monograph 5). 1959.


ACTS OF PARLIAMENT

There are various Acts of Parliament which affect printers, and inflict penalties for the neglect or violation of their provisions. Many printers frequently subject themselves to penalties, which are in many instances very heavy, through ignorance of those laws. To enable them to avoid these penalties, and also to show the legal restrictions on the business, I have taken great pains to examine the whole of the Statutes at Large, and to extract from them all such clauses as are in force, that affect the trade.—See the respective subjects.

Admiration, Note of. See Punctuation.


additives

1. Substances added in small proportions to products to improve their performance, or to enhance their attractiveness or value. Additives are also used to prevent bacterial action, drying, staling, as well as to inhibit corrosion, oxidation, decomposition, etc. 2. All of the nonfibrous raw materials used in making paper. They may be added at any point during the papermaking process or after the paper has been manufactured. Treatment of the entire sheet (internal treatment) entails mixing the additives with the paper pulp, in which case they are known as wet-end additives. If only the surface of the sheet is to be treated, the additives are applied directly to the surface of the paper, and are known as external additives. Paper additives are used to color and size paper, control pH, improve physical properties, and increase wet strength. They are also used as defoamers, dispersants, plasticizers, preservatives, retention aids, and the like.

British Federation of Master Printers. Preliminary technical course in printing. London. British Federation of Master Printers. 1967. 7 vol.

Crown Zellerbach Corp. Making pulp and paper. San Francisco. Crown Zellerbach Corp. 1958. 1 vol.


adherend

A material that is held to another material by means of an ADHESIVE.


adhesion

A term indicating that two surfaces are held together by interfacial forces, which may consist of valence forces (chemical adhesion), interlocking action (mechanical adhesion), VAN DER WAALS FORCES, or combinations thereof.

Skeist, Irving. Handbook of adhesives. New York. Reinhold. 1962.


adhesive

A general term for any of several substances capable of bonding materials to each other by chemical or mechanical action, or both, and which may be activated by water, non-aqueous solvents, pressure, heat, cold, or other means.

Adhesives may be classified by temperature (hot-, cold-, intermediate-, room-temperature setting, etc.); by type of solvent (water, alcohol, etc.); by type of application (brush, roller, spray, etc.); or by origin (animal, vegetable, or synthetic). They may be further classified as natural or synthetic (resin). The natural adhesives are primarily of animal or vegetable origin (sodium silicate (water glass) being virtually the only inorganic natural product important as an adhesive) and include animal glue, casein, blood albumen (which is unimportant as an adhesive in archival work), and vegetable adhesives. The synthetic resin adhesives include the thermoplastic resins, the thermosetting resins, and the elastomeric adhesives.

The adhesives used in archival work must exhibit three properties: 1) they must wet the surfaces to be joined but not so much as to cause the adhered materials to cockle; 2) they must have sufficient flexibility so as not to crack when the joint is flexed; and 3) they must be strong but not as strong as the materials they bond, so that stress to the point of failure of the joint will not damage the archival material but will result only in the failure of the adhesive. See also: ALBUMEN; CASEIN; CEMENT (2); COLD GLUE; DEXTRIN; FISH GLUE; FLEXIBLE GLUE; GLAIR; GLUCOSE-GLYCOL PASTE; GLUE; HARD GLUE; HOT-MELT ADHESIVE; ISINGLASS; MICROENCAPSULATED ADHESIVE; MUCILAGE; PADDING COMPOUND; PASTE; POLYVINYL ACETATE; RABBIT SKIN GLUE; RESINOUS ADHESIVES; RICE GLUE; RUBBER ADHESIVES; VEGETABLE GLUE; WOOD PASTE.

Blomquist, Richard Frederick. Adhesives; past, present and future. Philadelphia. American Society for Testing and Materials. Edgar Marburg Lecture 1963. 1963.

Comparato, Frank E. Books for the millions; a history of the men whose methods and machines packaged the printed word. Harrisburg, Pa. Stackpole. 1971.

Cunha, George Daniel Martin. Conservation of library materials. Metuchen, N.J. Scarecrow. 1967.

Guttman, Werner H. Concise guide to structural adhesives. New York. Reinhold. 1961.

Kantrowitz, Morris S., and others. Miscellaneous bookbinding adhesives. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. (GPO PIA joint research bulletin, B-4). 19--.

Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957

McGuire, Edward Patrick. American adhesive index. Mountainside, N. J. Padric. 1962.


adhesive binding

A method of securing loose leaves into a solid text block by means of an adhesive rather than by means of sewing, stitching, etc. In general, there are four techniques of adhesive binding in use today: 1) PADDING (2); 2) manual adhesive binding, which is still practiced by hand binders and some library binders; 3) semiautomatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in library binderies and some paperback edition binderies; and 4) fully automatic adhesive binding, which is the usual method in edition binding.

Two basic methods are used to secure the leaves in adhesive binding: 1) application of the adhesive to the edges of the collected and clamped leaves, without fanning, in which case there is little if any penetration of adhesive between the sheets; and 2) fanning the clamped leaves, either in one direction or both (in the latter case 180°), so that the adhesive is applied a slight distance onto the leaves, thus forming a more secure bond. A HOT-MELT ADHESIVE is usually employed in the first method, whereas a cold RESINOUS ADHESIVE, e.g., POLYVINYL ACETATE, is typical in the latter method. It is not unusual, however, to use a combination of the two adhesives. The resinous adhesives are generally used alone, but hot melts may be used in either a one-shot operation (hot melt alone), or in a two-shot application (a primer of polyvinyl adhesive, followed by the hot melt, in which case the leaves are usually fanned upon application of the cold adhesive).

Adhesive binding generally results in a book that opens easily and lies flat. It is also a relatively economical form of binding, especially when long runs of the same edition are being bound. The method lends itself well to the mass production of low-priced paperbacks, catalogs, telephone directories, and the like. It is also finding greater use in library binding for books that are not in sections and have relatively narrow margins, as well as for rebinding books printed on paper that is deteriorating. Adhesive binding, however, is not a satisfactory method of binding coated and similar papers.

Adhesive binding, in one form or another, is not a new concept; in fact, it dates back to the 1830s when William Hancock invented the so-called CAOUTCHOUC BINDING in England. Overall, however, even though the method is very practical for books that are to receive heavy use over a relatively short period, (e.g., telephone directories), adhesive binding is generally considered to be inferior to the sewn binding and its permanence has yet to be demonstrated. Also called "perfect binding." or "unsewn binding. See also: ADHESIVE BINDING MACHINE; ONE-SHOT METHOD; TWO-SHOT METHOD.

American Library Association. Library Technology Program. Development of performance standards for library binding, phase 1". Chicago. American Library Association. (L. T. P. publications no. 2). 1961.

American Library Association. Library Technology Program. Development of performance standards for binding used in libraries, phase 11. Chicago. American Library Association. (L. T. P. publications no. 10). 1966.

Clough, Eric A. Bookbinding for librarians. London. Association of Assistant Librarians. 1957.

Research and Engineering Council of the Graphic Arts Industry. Committee on Binding and Finishing. Proceedings of seminar on perfect binding…Washington, D.C. Research and Engineering Council of the Graphic Arts Industry. 1963.

Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.


adhesive binding machine

A machine that applies an adhesive, and sometimes a cloth lining, to the edges of the leaves or sections of a book. Adhesive binding machines may be classified as: 1) intermittent, with all operations being performed while the book is stopped; and 2) continuous, with all operations being performed while the book is in motion. In addition, they may be classified as: 1) inline, with the books being carried in one direction at a constant elevation; 2) rotary or circular, with books being carried in a circular path; and 3) oval, with books being carried over an extended oval path. There are variations within all of these categories. Adhesive binding machines used in library binderies are generally in-line machines which operate intermittently or continuously, with the books being inserted and removed from the machine by hand. Adhesive binding machines date back to the latter part of the 19th century, but their greatest period of development was following World War II.


adhesive dope

A chemical solvent used as a wash for the turn-in areas of imitation-leather book cloths and other impervious materials to facilitate adhesion of the board papers. It has very limited use today.


adhesive glassine tape

A gummed glassine paper, generally of BASIS WEIGHT of 25 pounds (24 X 36 – 500). It is sometimes used in mending the leaves of books, as well as for hinges, for which purposes it is supplied in rolls of narrow width. Its use for the repair of archival materials is not recommended, as it has a tendency to stain the paper and is difficult to remove. See also: HEAT-SET TISSUE.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.


adhesive paper

A paper coated with a water-activated, heat-activated, or pressure-activated adhesive. See: GUMMED PAPER; HEAT-SET TISSUE; PRESSURE-SENSITIVE TAPE; SE-LIN LABELING SYSTEM.


adjusted

A MARBLING SIZE that has been put into proper condition to receive the colors by the addition of OX-GALL, so that when the colors are dropped on they will spread evenly. The correct amount of gall will cause a drop of marbling color to expand to its maximum without thinning. See also: MARBLING.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


advance sheets

1. A copy of a book, in sheets or gatherings, for preliminary notices, simultaneous publication in two or more places, or for early cataloging. Advance sheets for review or early cataloging are usually in unbound gatherings. 2. Generally, sheets of a publication e.g., some serial publications or other documents, printed separately for use before they are issued collectively. In a stricter sense these are more appropriately called "preprints."

Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


ADVERTISEMENTS

By the Act 3 & 4 Will. 4. c. 23. s. 1., intituled

“An Act to reduce the Stamp Duties on Advertisements and on certain Sea Insurances; to repeal the Stamp Duties on Pamphlets, and on Receipts for Sums under Five Pounds; and to exempt Insurances on Farming Stock from Stamp Duties;” the Act 55 Geo. 3. c. 184.; the Act 55 Geo. 3. c. 185.; and the Act 56 Geo. 3. c. 56., for the Duties granted and payable in Ireland, are repealed; “save and except so much and such Part and Parts of the said Duties respectively as shall have accrued or been incurred before or upon the said Fifth Day of July One thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, and shall then or at any Time afterwards be or become due or payable and remain in arrear and unpaid; all which said Duties so remaining in arrear and unpaid as aforesaid shall be recoverable by the same Ways and Means, and with such and the same Penalties, as if this Act had not been made.

s. 2. “And be it enacted, That from and after the Fifth Day of July One thousand eight hundred and thirty-three, in lieu and stead of the said several Duties upon Advertisements and Sea Insurances by this Act repealed, there shall be granted, raised, levied, collected, and paid, in Great Britain and Ireland respectively, unto and for the Use of His Majesty, His Heirs and Successors, for and in respect of the several Articles, Matters, and Things mentioned and described in the Schedule to this Act annexed, the several Duties or Sums of Money set down in Figures against the same respectively, or otherwise specified and set forth in the said Schedule; and that the said Schedule, and the several Provisions, Regulations, and Directions therein contained, with respect to the said Duties, and the Articles, Matters, and Things charged therewith, shall be deemed and taken to be Part of this Act; and that the said Duties shall be denominated and deemed to be Stamp Duties, and shall be under the Care and Management of the Commissioners of Stamps for the Time being for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

s. 3. “And in order to provide for the Collection of the Duty by this Act granted on Advertisements contained in or published with any Pamphlet, Literary Work, or Periodical Paper, be it enacted, That one printed Copy of every Pamphlet or Literary Work or Periodical Paper (not being a Newspaper), containing or having published therewith any Advertisements or Advertisement liable to Stamp Duty, which shall be published within the Cities of London, Edinburgh, or Dublin respectively, or within Twenty Miles thereof respectively, shall, within the Space of Six Days next after the Publication thereof, be brought, together with all Advertisements printed therein, or published or intended to be published therewith, to the Head Office for Stamps in Westminster, Edinburgh, or Dublin nearest to which such Pamphlet, Literary Work, or Periodical Paper shall have been published, and the Title thereof, and the Christian Name and Surname of the Printer and Publisher thereof, with the Number of Advertisements contained therein or published therewith; and any Stamp Duty by Law payable in respect of such Advertisements shall be registered in a Book to be kept at such Office, and the Duty on such Advertisements shall be there paid to the Receiver General of Stamp Duties for the Time being, or his Deputy or Clerk, or the proper authorized Officer, who shall thereupon forthwith give a Receipt for the same; and one printed Copy of every such Pamphlet, Literary Work, or Paper as aforesaid, which shall be published in any Place in the United Kingdom, not being within the Cities of London, Edinburgh, or Dublin, or within Twenty Miles thereof respectively, shall, within the Space of Ten Days next after the Publication thereof, be brought, together with all such Advertisements as aforesaid, to the Head Distributor of Stamps for the Time being within the District in which such Pamphlet, Literary Work, or Paper shall be published; and such Distributor is hereby required forthwith to register the same in manner aforesaid in a Book to be by him kept for that Purpose; and the Duty payable in respect of such Advertisements shall be thereupon paid to such Distributor, who shall give a Receipt for the same; and if the Duty which shall be by Law payable in respect of any such Advertisements as aforesaid shall not be duly paid within the respective Times and in the Manner herein-before limited and appointed for that Purpose, the Printer and Publisher of such Pamphlet, Literary Work, or Paper, and the Publisher of any such Advertisements, shall respectively forfeit and pay the Sum of Twenty Pounds for every such Offence; and in any Action, Information, or other Proceeding for the Recovery of such Penalty, or for the Recovery of the Duty on any such Advertisements, Proof of the Payment of the said Duty shall lie upon the Defendant.

s. 4. “And be it enacted, That all the Powers, Provisions, Clauses, Regulations, and Directions, Fines, Forfeitures, Pains, and Penalties, contained in or imposed by the several Acts of Parliament relating to the Duties on Advertisements and Sea Insurances respectively, and the several Acts of Parliament relating to any prior Duties of the same Kind or Description, in Great Britain and Ireland respectively, shall be of full Force and Effect with respect to the Duties by this Act granted, and to the Vellum, Parchment, Paper, Articles, Matters, and Things charged or chargeable therewith, and to the Persons liable to the Payment of the said Duties, so far as the same are or shall be applicable in all Cases not hereby expressly provided for, and shall be observed, applied, enforced, and put in execution for the raising, levying, collecting, and securing of the said Duties hereby granted, and otherwise relating thereto, so far as the same shall not be superseded by and shall be consistent with the express Provisions of this Act, as fully and effectually to all Intents and Purposes as if the same had been herein repeated and especially enacted with reference to the said Duties by this Act granted.”

THE SCHEDULE.

Advertisements:—

[So much of this Act repealed by 6 & 7 Will. 4. c. 76. s. 32. “as provides the Mode of collecting the Duty on Advertisements contained in or published with any Pamphlet, Periodical Paper, or Literary Work.”]

Albion Press. See Cope’s Press.


advertisements bound-in

A statement to the effect that advertisements have been included in the binding of a volume bound from parts or issues, or in the rebinding of a volume, usually a serial publication. Some libraries instruct the binder to remove all advertisements not containing subject matter (on either side of the leaf), or those that are paginated separately. This is done to save shelf space; it is questionable, however, whether sufficient space is saved to warrant the effort. In addition, the presence of advertisements can be of value to scholars and is of value to collectors.


aerosol

A dispersion in which a material is dissolved or suspended in a liquid which volatilizes to produce a fine spray when pressure is released. The spray carries the active material. Tn archival work, aerosols are used for dispersing deacidification solutions; in this case the propellant, which must be inert and nonflammable, is frequently a chlorofluorocarbon, e.g., freon 12, dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2).


against the grain

Paper which has been folded at right angles to the direction in which the fibers tend to lie, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION. A well-produced book always has the grain or machine direction running from head to tail so that the back or binding fold of the paper is not against the grain. Correct grain direction means that the leaves of the book will be more inclined to lie flat when the book is open. The term applies specifically to machine-made paper, as HANDMADE PAPER has no definite grain direction.


agalite

A natural fibrous form of talc, gray in color and consisting principally of hydrated magnesium silicate. It gives paper a greasy or soapy feel. and enables it to take a high finish. It is little used today.

Britt, Kenneth W., ed. Handbook of pulp and paper technology. 2nd ed. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970.


agar

The polysaccharides agarose and agropectin, occurring as cell-wall constituents of red marine algae (genera Gelidium, Gracilaria, etc.), from which it is extracted by hot water. It is available as a dry powder, flakes, or strips. Agar is the metallic (usually calcium) salt of a sulfuric acid ester of a complex polysaccharide of gelactose, but its exact structure is not understood. It dissolves in hot water and, upon cooling, sets to a jelly at concentrations as low as 0.5%. It is used as a gelling and stabilizing agent, as a misciformis sizing for silk, and as an adhesive emulsifying agent.

Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.


agate

A natural stone, consisting of a form of silica, similar to chalcedony, with colored bands of purple or brown, shaped and polished for use as a burnishing tool, particularly in edge gilding. See also: BURNISHER (2).


agatine

A marble pattern consisting of black in large spots, green in rivers, scarlet in sprinkles, and blue in small spots. Various designs are made from this combination of colors. "

Hannett, John. Bibliopegia; or, the art of bookbinding… London. Simkim, Marshall. 1848.


aggressive tack

See: DRY TACK.


aging

A general term describing the natural degradation of paper, adhesives, leather, and other archival materials, while in storage. With some textiles, aging denotes oxidation by exposure to air. Aging is greatly influenced by the environment in which the materials are stored. See also: ACCELERATED AGING TEST; ENVIRONMENT; PERMANENT MATERIALS; PERMANENT PAPER; YELLOWING.


air dry

A condition usually associated with paper (and paper pulp) and leather. Paper is said to be air dry when its moisture content (usually 3 to 9%) is in equilibrium with the atmospheric conditions to which it is exposed. Leather is considered to be air dry when its moisture content is approximately 14% of the weight of the leather. Their different moisture contents in the air dry state makes it difficult to regulate the conditions of storage of a leather bound book.

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


air permeability

The property which permits the passage of air when a difference in pressure exists across the boundaries of the material. Air permeability is one indication of a substance's porosity. See also: VAPOR PERMEABILITY.


air-dried

Handmade- and the better machine-made papers dried in a current of air, either at normal or elevated temperatures, as distinguished from paper which is dried by contact with heated rolls. This method of drying reduces stresses, including DRIED-IN STRAIN, which are imposed on paper while drying, because the sheet is allowed to dry, and therefore contract, at a slower rate. See also: ANISOTROPIC BEHAVIOR.

Crown Zellerbach Corp. Making pulp and paper. San Francisco. Crown Zellerbach Corp. 1958. 1 vol.


airmail paper

A lightweight paper made for printing publications such as newspapers that are to be sent by airmail. It usually contains fillers to improve opacity, and is generally made in a basis weight of 10 pounds (17 X 22 – 500). Airmail paper is also used at times for guarding sections, mending tears, etc. For these purposes, it is preferable that the paper have a high rag content and an alkaline reserve of about 3%.

British Federation of Master Printers. Preliminary technical course in printing. London. British Federation of Master Printers. 1967. 7 vol.


Aitken, Robert

One of a group of Scottish craftsmen in the bookbinding trade who immigrated to America in the years immediately before the Revolutionary War. Aitken appeared in Philadelphia in 1769, as a bookseller. He returned to Scotland that same year, apparently to learn bookbinding, because upon his return two years later he advertised himself as both bookbinder and bookseller. After 1773 he began to print books as well, and, in 1782, published the "Aitken Bible," the first complete Bible in English to be published on the North American continent.

Aitken produced hundreds of bookbindings ranging in style from paper wrappers (both blue and marbled) to more or less richly gilt leather bindings. His work included blue paper boards, raised cords as well as flat spines, both plain and marbled endpapers, and bindings in full calf- or sheepskin with red title labels and gilt bands across the spines. Although Aitken produced scores of "plain" bindings, he was also capable of a binding style that was rich and luxurious in its gold tooling, especially for American bookbinding of that time. He was, in general, an imaginative and diverse bookbinder, although he was not known for his exactness and polish in finishing, nor was he particularly artistic. Because Aitkin was also an engraver, it has been suggested that he may have cut his own finishing tools, possible in imitation of Scottish designs.

Bibliographical Society of America. Papers. New York. The Society.

Lehmann-Haupt, Hellmut Emile. Bookbinding in America; three essays. Portland, Maine. Southworth-Anthoensen. 1941. 201.

Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore. The history of bookbinding 525-1950 A.D. Compiled by Dorothy Miner. Baltimore. Trustees of the Walters Art Gallery. 1957.


ajoure bindings

A style of bookbinding executed during the last third of the 15th century in Venice. Ajoure bindings were embellished with pierced or translucent patterns, in a manner referred to as "letting in the daylight." They generally featured openwork designs of foliage, angels' heads, satyr-masks, birds, baskets of fruits, etc.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


album

1. A book of envelopes or jackets, usually with a decorative cover and often with descriptive notes. It is intended to contain phonograph records. 2. A book of blank leaves designed to contain written records, clippings, postage stamps, and the like.


album paper

A type of cover paper used for photograph albums. It is manufactured in gray and black in basis weights of 50 to 80 pounds (20 X 26 – 500). A basic requirement of this paper is that it not cockle when wetted with adhesives, while another essential requirement is that it contain no impurities which might alter or damage the photographs.

Sutermeister, Edwin. The story of papermaking. Boston. Warren. 1954.


albumen

A class of protein found in egg whites. A mixture of egg white and vinegar (GLAIR) is used in book finishing; its purpose is to secure the gold leaf to the covering material prior to the impression of the heated tool. Albumen is also used as an adhesive in edge gilding.


alchemic gold

A gold ink composition developed early in the 20th century as a substitute for imitation gold leaf. It was said to be "free from acid," as well as non-tarnishing. Its principal virtue seems to have been that it eliminated the necessity of sizing, laying-on, and rubbing off.

Hitchcock, Frederick H. The building of a book…2nd ed. New York. Bowker. 1929.

Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


aldehyde tanning

Essentially a formaldehyde tannage. Several aldehydes react with hide protein to prevent putrefaction, but only FORMALDEHYDE has been used to any extent in the manufacture of leather. Formaldehyde is soluble in water, the resultant solution generally being known as FORMALIN. Aldehyde tanning is used principally in tanning white, washable leathers, usually sheep or lambskins, with the grain split or shaved off. Such leathers are seldom used in bookbinding. See also: ZIRCONIUM TANNING.

Reed, Ronald. Ancient skin, parchments and leathers. London. Seminar Press. 1972.

Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.


alder (bark)

The bark of the common alder tree (Alnus glutinosa), used to some extent in small tanneries in southeastern Europe and Turkey for tanning leather. The bark contains 9 to 16% or more tannin, while the dried fruit yields about 16% tannin. The use of alder bark is not extensive—mainly because, when used alone, it imparts an objectionable reddish-brown color to the leather, and also tends to make the leather brittle. Other alder barks have also been used in tanning, including Alnus incana (in Europe and North America), A. nepalesis and A. nitida (in India), and A. cordata (in Italy).

Frank Norman. Howes, Frank Norman. Vegetable tanning materials. London. Butterworth. 1953.


Aldine leaves

Small finishing stamps bearing a leaf and stem design. It was employed by the binders of Aldus Manutius, and also extensively by 19th century bookbinders on monastic bindings. See also: ALDINE (ITALIAN) STYLE.

Toldo, Vittorio de. The Italian art of bookbinding. London. Batsford. (Monographs of decorative arts, 3). 1925.


Aldine or Italian Style

Ornaments of solid face without any shading whatever, such as used by Aldus and other early Italian printers. The ornaments are of Arabic character. A style appropriate for early printed literature.


Aldine style

A style of bookbinding originated by Aldus Manutius but not restricted to the books printed by Aldus or his family. Aldine bindings, which were produced during the late 15th and early 16th centuries, were characterized by the use of brown or red morocco; by solid-faced ornaments with no shading (which were similar to those used in printing the text); and by title or author in simple panels in the center of the upper cover, which could be read while the book lay on a shelf or table. Early examples of the Aldine style were tooled in blind with an outer frame and a center ornament. Possibly because of the Greek binders Aldus employed, as well as the fact that gold tooling (probably) originated in the Near East, Aldine tools display definite signs of Eastern origin. Early Italian bindings convey a consistent feeling of the shape and proportion of the book, which is demonstrated by: 1) the use of border and panel as schemes of design; 2) a remarkable sense of the value accorded ornamentation; 3) the areas of leather left undecorated; and 4) restraint in the decorative detail with the result that it was always in proper subordination to the overall effect of the embellishment. See PLATE IV.

Dutton, Meiric Keeler. Historical sketch of bookbinding as an art. Norwood. Holliston Mills. 1968.

Horne, Herbert Percy. The binding of books; an essay in the history of gold-tooled bindings. 2nd ed. New York. Haskell House. 1970.

Prideaux, Sarah Treverbian. An historical sketch of bookbinding. London. Lawrence & Bullen. 1893.


algarobilla

The dry pods of a shrub native to Chile (Caesalpinia brevifolia), from which a tannin is extracted. As a tanning material, algarobilla somewhat resembles DIVI-DIVI; however, it is less prone to discolor the leather. It also produces a better weight and imparts greater firmness to leather. Algarobilla gives a light-colored tan liquor which before fermentation colors leather slightly to a light reddish yellow; however, after fermentation it produces a very bright color. It is usually blended with other tannins. Although algarobilla is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins, it penetrates the hide substance very rapidly, and has a fairly low natural pH and salts content and a relatively high acids content. The tannin content of the pods is generally in the range of 45-50%. See also: VEGETABLE TANNINS,


ALGEBRAIC CHARACTERS

+ is the sign of addition; as c + d denotes that d is to be added to c.

- is the sign of subtraction; thus, c - d implies that d is to be subtracted from c.

× is the sign of multiplication; as c × d means the product of c and d.

÷ is the sign of division; as c ÷ d signifies the quotient of c and d.

= is the sign of equality; thus c + d = e means the sum of c and d equals e.

√ is the sign of the square root; thus √x denotes the square root of x.

∛ is the sign of the cube root, and generally any root of a quantity may be denoted by this sign, with the index of the root placed over it; thus ∛x signifies the cube root, ∜x the biquadrate root, &c.; but they may likewise be represented by the reciprocals of these indices; as x½, x⅓, implying the square and cube roots of x.

A vinculum is a line drawn over several quantities, and means that they are taken together, as √ax + b signifies the square root of ax and b.—Phillips’s Compendium of Algebra. 12mo. 1824.

Almanack. See Nautical Almanack.


alkali

A substance which has the properties of a base, especially a hydroxide or carbonate of an alkali metal, e.g., calcium. Since all of these substances, when dissolved, increase the hydroxyl ion concentration, the term alkali is synonymous with base. An aqueous alkaline solution is one with a pH value greater than 7.0. Alkalies are used in conservation work principally in adhesives, and in deacidifying and buffering paper. See also: ALKALINE RESERVE; HYDROGEN-ION CONCENTRATION.


alkaline buffer

See: ALKALINE RESERVE.


alkaline filler

A FILLER (2) used in the manufacture of paper. Calcium carbonate (CaCO3) is the most commonly used alkaline filler.


alkaline process

A method of treating fibrous raw materials with alkaline solutions to liberate fibers or to purify paper pulps. Lime, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, sodium sulfate, and sodium sulfide are used in this process, with sodium hydroxide being used most often. It may be used in both the sulfate and sulfite processes.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

A laboratory handbook of pulp and paper manufacture. 2nd ed. London. Arnold. 1961.


alkaline reserve

A buffer, or reserve, of an alkaline substance added to a paper for the purpose of counteracting any acid which may be introduced into it subsequent to DEACIDIFICATION. Soaking paper in a solution of calcium bicarbonate or magnesium bicarbonate adds a small amount of calcium or magnesium carbonate which neutralizes any acid present and also provides a reserve to counteract acid which may enter the paper at some future time. (The bicarbonates are converted to the carbonates during the drying of the paper, with the liberation of carbon dioxide.) The treatment is effective only as long as free alkali remains. Papers which are to remain acid free for long periods of time, e.g., 500 years, should have approximately 3% precipitated carbonate by weight of paper.

Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957


all along

A method of sewing a book, usually by hand and generally on cords or tapes. The thread goes "all along," inside the fold of the section—that is, from kettle stitch to kettle stitch of each successive section, one complete length of thread for each section. "All along" is traditionally associated with the best method of sewing a book by hand, although books were sewn TWO ON and even THREE ON when the sections were very thin or when an economical method was required. The term is also used, somewhat incorrectly, to describe machine book sewing when each section is sewn with the full number of threads. Also called "one on" and "one sheet on."

Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


all on

See: ALL ALONG.


All-Along

When a volume is sewed, and the thread passes from kettle-stitch to kettle-stitch, or from end to end in each sheet, it is said to be sewed “all-along.”

The Art of Bookbinding: A Practical Treatise


All-Along

When a volume is sewed, and the thread passes from kettlestitch to kettlestitch, or from end to end in each sheet, it is said to be sewed all-along.


all-over style

1. A style of finishing in which the entire cover, as distinct from the corners, center or borders, is decorated by a single motif, multiple motifs, or a decorative roll. 2. Any pattern in a book cloth which runs both across and down the roll.

Fahey, Herbert, and Peter Fahey. Finishing in hand bookbinding…  San Francisco. The authors. 1951.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


Alley

The space between two stands.

The American Printer: A Manual of Typography


alligator grained leather

A grain effect embossed on various types of leathers, such as calf, sheep, or cow, in imitation of the genuine reptilian leather. See: ALLIGATOR LEATHER.


alligator leather

A leather produced from the skin of any member of the reptilian order Crocodilla. Generally, only the belly area of the animal is used, the heavily scaled back being too course and horny. The beauty of alligator leather stems in part from the fact that the scales have a natural "enamel," which, originally, was usually destroyed by crude tanning methods. Later it was preserved, and even enhanced, by "plating" the skin with heated metal plates which gave it its high glaze. Alligator leather is very durable and also very expensive. This term is largely confined to the United States; in Europe it is generally called "crocodile leather."

Waterer, John William. A guide to the conservation and restoration of objects made wholly or in part of leather. 2nd ed. London. Bell. 1973.

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


alpha cellulose

That part of a cellulosic material that is insoluble in a 17.5% solution of sodium hydroxide at 20° C. under specified conditions. While alpha cellulose consists principally of cellulose, it does include other components that are insoluble under the test conditions. Because the permanence of paper depends to some extent on the absence of non-cellulosic impurities, the determination of true cellulose (alpha cellulose) gives an indication of the stability of the paper, and therefore its permanence. See also: BETA CELLULOSE; CELLULOSE; GAMMA CELLULOSE.

Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.


alpha grass

See: ESPARTO (GRASS).


alpha protein

A soy bean protein used in the manufacture of adhesives that are to be combined with casein glues, or used for coating paper.


ALPHABET

A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, indeed, of every other language, would contain a number of letters, precisely equal to the number of simple articulate sounds belonging to the language. Every simple sound would have its distinct character; and that character be the representative of no other sound. But this is far from being the state of the English alphabet. It has more original sounds than distinct significant letters; and, consequently, some of these letters are made to represent, not one sound alone, but several sounds. This will appear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the united letters th, sh, ng, are elementary, and have no single appropriate characters, in our alphabet; and the letters a and u represent the different sounds heard in hat, hate, hall; and but, bull, mute.

The letters of the English language, called the English Alphabet, are twenty-six in number.—Murray.

The following is a list of the Roman, Italic, and Old English Characters, being those used at the present day in England. The Roman and Italic are also used by most of the European nations.

For the characters of the different languages, see their respective names, Arabic, &c.

Tacquet, an able mathematician, in his Arithmeticiæ Theor., Amst. 1704, states, that the various combinations of the twenty-four letters (without any repetition) will amount to

620,448,401,733,239,439,360,000.

Thus it is evident, that twenty-four letters will admit of an infinity of combinations and arrangements, sufficient to represent not only all the conceptions of the mind, but all words in all languages whatever.

Clavius the Jesuit, who also computes these combinations, makes them to be only 5,852,616,738,497,664,000.

As there are more sounds in some languages than in others, it follows of course that the number of elementary characters, or letters, must vary in the alphabets of different languages. The Hebrew, Samaritan, and Syriac alphabets, have twenty-two letters; the Arabic, twenty-eight; the Persic, and Egyptian or Coptic, thirty-two; the present Russian, forty-one; the Shanscrit, fifty; the Cashmirian and Malabaric are still more numerous.—Astle.

English Alphabet with Old English characters

William Savage, A Dictionary of the Art of Printing, 1841


ALTERATION OF MARGIN

In works that are published in different sizes, this is the changing of the margin from the small paper to the large paper edition, when at press.

After the margin for the small paper copies is finally made, the additional width of the gutters, the backs, and the heads, is ascertained in the same manner, by folding a sheet of the large paper, that it was in the first instance. The additional pieces for the change should, if possible, be in one piece for each part. See Margin.

Folios, quartos, and octavos, are the sizes most usually printed with an alteration of margin; duodecimos are sometimes, but rarely; of smaller sizes I never knew an instance.

The alteration of margin requires care, for it occasionally happens that the sheet is imposed with the wrong furniture; and where it happens to be in one form only, and that form is first laid on, it sometimes passes undiscovered till a revise of the second form is pulled, when the error is detected, but too late to rectify it; the consequence must be, to cancel a part of the sheet, or to print the reiteration with the margin also wrong; nay, sometimes both forms are worked off with the furniture wrong, without being perceived till the compositor comes to distribute, particularly when they are printed at different presses. Such errors destroy the uniformity of the book, and spoil its appearance.

These mistakes can only be avoided by care and attention on the part of the compositor, the reader, and the pressman; but I would recommend that the furniture for the alteration should be cut of different lengths from the furniture of the small paper: in octavos the gutters and backs should be the exact length of the page, and be always imposed within the sidestick; and the head should be the width of the two pages and the gutter, and be imposed within the footstick. This method of cutting the furniture of precise lengths for the alteration, and locking it up within the side and foot sticks, will not only distinguish it from the rest of the furniture, and from the pieces that may be put in for the convenience of quoining the form, but will also preserve it from being injured by the mallet and shooting stick, in locking up, and by the indention of the quoins.

The same principle, of cutting the alteration to precise lengths, and locking it up within the side and foot sticks, will hold good in all other sizes, where it is required: in quartos, the pieces must be cut to the length and width of the page; and in folios to the length of the page only, as the margin of the head is regulated at the press.


alum

A salt used in papermaking and in the TAWING of skins. True (potash) alum is chemically a double salt of aluminum, or potassium aluminum sulfate (K2SO4 . Al2(SO4)3 . 24H2O). The papermaker's alum in use today is not true alum, but either aluminum sulfate (A12(SO4)3 . 14H2O), (Al2(SO4)3 . 18H2O), or a mixture of these hydrates, and is manufactured by treating pulverized bauxite with sulfuric acid. It is soluble in water, and, while slightly alkaline in the dry form, it is decidedly acidic when dissolved in water. Alum has two major functions in papermaking: 1) to control pH; and 2) because of its floculating ability, to retain other additives in the paper, notably the sizing agent.

ROSIN is a basic material used in sizing paper today. As a sizing agent it imparts water (ink) resistance to paper; however, in order for the rosin to be able to impart water resistance it must be rendered insoluble, which is the function if alum.

Although the full role of alum in the sizing of paper is not completely understood, one of its functions is to make rosin come out of solution (precipitate) while it is in close contact with the fibers of the paper-making slurry. The fibers are thus coated and impregnated with a solid and water-resistant mixture of rosin and what is probably a compound of rosin and aluminum oxide.

Although the excessive use of alum is considered detrimental to the permanence of paper, the papermaker tends to overdose with alum rather than underdose, so as to avoid soft-sizing. In addition, alum is considered by some papermakers to be a panacea for other troubles, such as frothing, sticking of the paper web to the wet presses of the papermaking machine, etc. Overdosing with alum leads to excessive acidity and, under certain circumstances, may lead to severe deterioration of the paper. While alum is not a particularly strong acid, in the presence of certain other substances it can assume a greater strength. Chlorides, which may be present in the paper as a result of bleaching processes, or natural to the water itself, can be particularly harmful. Excessive alum, in the form of aluminum sulfate, may react with chlorides present to form aluminum chloride (AlCl3), which in the presence of moisture and heat, will form hydrochloric acid (HCl)—one of the most powerful of all acids in its effect on cellulose.

Alum is sometimes used in solution to wash the leaves of books; in the past it was added to paste to act as a preservative, or as a hardener to render the dry paste less water soluble. It is also used at times as a mordant for marbling colors. See also: ALUM WATER.

Barrow, William J. Deterioration of book stock, causes and remedies…Ed. by Randolph W. Church. Richmond, Va. Virginia State Library Publications, No. 10. 1959.

Beckwith, Theodore Day, and others. Deterioration of paper; the cause and effects of foxing. Berkeley, Calif. University of California Press. 1940.

Kingzett, Charles Thomas. Kingzett's chemical encyclopedia; a digest of chemistry & its industrial applications. Ed. by D. H. Hey, and others. 9th ed. London. Baillière, Tindell and Cassell. 1966.


alum water

ALUM dissolved in water and used to sponge paper and the edges of books before laying on the marbling colors. The alum acts as a binding medium, attracting and securing the ox-gall and colors to the paper. It also acts as a mordant and is also useful in counteracting excessive gall.

Hewitt-Bates, James Samuel. Bookbinding. 8th ed. Leicester. Dryad. 1967.

Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


alum-size bath

A size bath consisting of ALUM dissolved in water and used by some restorers to remove coffee, tea, blood and some ink stains from paper.


alum-tawed skin

See: TAWING.


aluminum leaf

A bright leaf or foil made of aluminum and often substituted for silver in blocking edition bindings. While it tarnishes less rapidly than silver, it lacks the appearance of richness and depth of silver leaf. It is also less expensive.

Cockerell, Douglas. Bookbinding, and the care of books; a textbook for bookbinders and librarians. 5th ed. London. Pitman. 1971.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


aluminum sulfate

A salt of aluminum (Al2(SO4)3), occurring naturally in considerable quantities in alumstone (alumite) and feather alum. It is manufactured by treating bauxite with 80% sulfuric acid at 110° C., the resulting solution being purified, concentrated, and allowed to solidify. See also: ALUM.


American leather

An obsolete term for one of the varieties of enameled cloth made to imitate leather. See also: IMITATION LEATHER.

Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.


American marble

A drawn marble pattern usually used on the edges of stationery bindings, and consisting of black, blue surrounding the black, yellow on the blue, and red on the yellow. The marble is drawn in the same manner as the comb NONPAREIL MARBLE, with an additional drawing of the comb the width of the trough.

U.S. Government Printing Office. Theory and practice of bookbinding. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962.


American Russia

An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER produced from cowhide or the hide of the American buffalo (bison). It is usually a straight-grained leather. Also called "Russia cowhide."


amorphous

A term applied to adhesives, with reference to their non-crystalline structure.


amyl acetate

A colorless, volatile liquid ester (C7H14O2) that is very slightly soluble in water, but miscible in alcohol and ether. It is used as a solvent for CELLULOSE ACETATE. Although at one time it was believed to have a preservative effect when applied to leather, it is much too volatile to have afforded lasting protection, even if initially effective.


amylaceous

Pertaining to, or of the nature of STARCH; starchy. See also: PASTE.


anchoring

See: TYING DOWN. See also: HEADBAND.


ANCIENT CUSTOMS

The following Customs used in Printing Offices in former times are extracted from Moxon’s Mechanick Exercises, published in 1683, the first practical work that appeared on the Art of Printing. I insert them because I think it interesting to trace the old Customs, that were established by printers to preserve Order among themselves; and to show the changes that have taken place since that period. The insertion of them in this place will also tend to preserve them, as the original work is now very scarce, and this department of it has been superseded by subsequent publications, which however, with the exception of Mr. Hansard’s work, have not copied these Customs.

“Ancient Customs used in a Printing-house.

“Every Printing-house is by the Custom of Time out of mind, called a Chappel; and all the Workmen that belong to it are Members of the Chappel: and the Oldest Freeman is Father of the Chappel. I suppose the stile was originally conferred upon it by the courtesie of some great Churchman, or men, (doubtless when Chappels were in more veneration than of late years they have been here in England) who for the Books of Divinity that proceeded from a Printing-house, gave it the Reverend Title of Chappel.

“There have been formerly Customs and By-Laws made and intended for the well and good Government of the Chappel, and for the more Civil and orderly deportment of all its Members while in the Chappel; and the Penalty for the breach of any of these Laws and Customs is in Printers Language called a Solace.

“And the Judges of these Solaces, and other Controversies relating to the Chappel or any of its Members, was plurality of Votes in the Chappel. It being asserted as a Maxim, That the Chappel cannot Err. But when any Controversie is thus decided, it always ends in the Good of the Chappel.

“1. Swearing in the Chappel, a Solace.

“2. Fighting in the Chappel, a Solace.

“3. Abusive Language, or giving the Ly in the Chappel, a Solace.

“4. To be Drunk in the Chappel, a Solace.

“5. For any of the Workmen to leave his Candle burning at Night, a Solace.

“6. If the Compositer let fall his Composing-stick, and another take it up, a Solace.

“7. Three Letters and a Space to lye under the Compositers Case, a Solace.

“8. If a Press-man let fall his Ball or Balls, and another take it up, a Solace.

“9. If a Press-man leave his Blankets in the Tympan at Noon or Night, a Solace.

“These Solaces were to be bought off, for the good of the Chappel: Nor were the price of these Solaces alike: For some were 12d. 6d. 4d. 2d. 1d. ob. according to the nature and quality of the Solace.

“But if the Delinquent prov’d Obstinate or Refractory, and would not pay his Solace at the Price of the Chappel, they Solac’d him.

“The manner of Solacing, thus.

“The Workmen take him by force, and lay him on his Belly athwart the Correcting-stone, and held him there while another of the Work-men with a Paper-board, gave him 10l. and a Purse, viz. Eleven blows on his Buttocks; which he laid on according to his own mercy. For Tradition tells us, that about 50 years ago one was Solaced with so much violence, that he presently P——d Blood; and shortly after dyed of it.

“These nine Solaces were all the Solaces usually and generally accepted: yet in some particular Chappels the Work-men did by consent make other Solaces, viz.

“That it should be a Solace for any of the Workmen to mention Joyning their Penny or more apiece to send for Drink.

“To mention spending Chappel-money till Saturday night, or any other before agreed time.

“To Play at Quadrats, or excite any of the Chappel to Play at Quadrats; either for Money or Drink.

“This Solace is generally purchas’d by the Master-Printer; as well because it hinders the Workmens work, as because it Batters and spoils the Quadrats: For the manner how they Play with them is Thus: They take five or seven more m Quadrats (generally of the English Body) and holding their Hand below the Surface of the Correcting Stone, shake them in their Hand, and toss them upon the Stone, and then count how many Nicks upwards each man throws in three times, or any other number of times agreed on: And he that throws most Wins the Bett of all the rest, and stands out free, till the rest have try’d who throws fewest Nicks upwards in so many throws; for all the rest are free: and he pays the Bett.

“For any to Take up a Sheet, if he receiv’d Copy-money; Or if he receiv’d no Copy-money, and did Take up a Sheet, and carryed that Sheet or Sheets off the Printing-House till the whole Book was Printed off and Publisht.

“Any of the Workmen may purchase a Solace for any trivial matter, if the rest of the Chappel consent to it. As if any of the Workmen Sing in the Chappel; he that is offended at it may, with the Chappels Consent purchase a penny or two penny Solace for any Workmans singing after the Solace is made; Or if a Workman or a Stranger salute a Woman in the Chappel, after the making of the Solace, it is a Solace of such a Value as is agreed on.

“The price of all Solaces to be purchased is wholly Arbitrary in the Chappel. And a Penny Solace may perhaps cost the Purchaser Six Pence, Twelve Pence, or more for the Good of the Chappel.

“Yet sometimes Solaces may cost double the Purchase or more. As if some Compositer have (to affront a Press-man) put a Wisp of Hay in the Press-man’s Ball-Racks; If the Press-man cannot well brook this affront, he will lay six Pence down on the Correcting Stone to purchase a Solace of twelve pence upon him that did it; and the Chappel cannot in Justice refuse to grant it: because it tends to the Good of the Chappel: And being granted, it becomes every Members duty to make what discovery he can: because it tends to the farther Good of the Chappel: And by this means it seldom happens but the Agressor is found out.

“Nor did Solaces reach only the Members of the Chappel, but also Strangers that came into the Chappel, and offered affronts or indignities to the Chappel, or any of its Members; the Chappel would determine it a Solace. Example,

“It was a Solace for any to come to the King’s Printing-house and ask for a Ballad.

“For any to come and enquire of a Compositer, whether he had News of such a Galley at Sea.

“For any to bring a Wisp of Hay, directed to any of the Press-men.

“And such Strangers were commonly sent by some who knew the Customs of the Chappel, and had a mind to put a Trick upon the Stranger.

“Other Customs were used in the Chappel, which were not Solaces, viz. Every new Workman to pay half a Crown; which is called his Benvenue: This Benvenue being so constant a Custome is still lookt upon by all Workmen as the undoubted Right of the Chappel, and therefore never disputed; yet he who has not paid his Benvenue is no Member of the Chappel nor enjoys any benefit of Chappel-Money.

“If a Journey-man Wrought formerly upon the same Printing House, and comes again to Work on it, pays but half a Benvenue.

“If a Journey-man Smout more or less on another Printing-House and any of the Chappel can prove it, he pays half a Benvenue.

“I told you before that abusive Language or giving the Lye was a Solace: But if in discourse, when any of the Workmen affirm any thing that is not believed, the Compositer knocks with the back corner of his Composing-stick against the lower Ledge of his Lower Case, and the Press-man knocks the handles of his Ball-stocks together: Thereby signifying the discredit they give to his Story.

“It is now customary that Journey-men are paid for all Church Holy days that fall not on a Sunday, Whether they Work or no: And they are by Contract with the Master Printer paid proportionably for what they undertake to Earn every Working day, be it half a Crown, two Shillings, three Shillings, four Shillings, &c.

“It is also customary for all the Journey-men to make every Year new Paper Windows, whether the old will serve again or no; Because that day they make them, the Master Printer gives them a Way-goose; that is, he makes them a good Feast, and not only entertains them at his own House, but besides, gives them Money to spend at the Ale-house or Tavern at Night; And to this Feast they invite the Correcter, Founder, Smith, Joyner, and Inck-maker, who all of them severally (except the Correcter in his own Civility) open their Purse-strings and add their Benevolence (which Workmen account their duty, because they generally chuse these Workmen) to the Master Printers: But from the Correcter they expect nothing, because the Master Printer chusing him, the Workmen can do him no kindness.

“These Way-gooses, are always kept about Bartholemew-tide. And till the Master-Printer have given this Way-goose, the journey-men do not use to work by Candle Light.

“If a Journey-man marry, he pays half a Crown to the Chappel.

“When his Wife comes to the Chappel, she pays six Pence: and then all the Journey-men joyn their two Pence apiece to Welcome her.

“If a Journeyman have a Son born, he pays one Shilling.

“If a Daughter born, six Pence.

“The Father of the Chappel drinks first of Chapel Drink, except some other Journey-man have a Token; viz. Some agreed piece of Coin or Mettle markt by consent of the Chappel: for then producing that Token, he Drinks first. This Token is always given to him who in the Round should have Drank, had the last Chappel-drink held out. Therefore when Chappel-drink comes in, they generally say, Who has the Token?

“Though these Customs are no Solaces; yet the Chappel Excommunicates the Delinquent; and he shall have no benefit of Chappel-money till he have paid.

“It is also customary in some Printing-houses that if the Compositer or Press-man make either the other stand still through the neglect of their contracted Task, that then he who neglected, shall pay him that stands still as much as if he had Wrought.

“The Compositers are Jocosely called Galley Slaves: Because allusively they are as it were bound to their Gallies.

“And the Press-men are Jocosely called Horses: Because of the hard Labour they go through all day long.

“An Apprentice when he is Bound pays half a Crown to the Chappel, and when he is made Free, another half Crown to the Chappel; but is yet no Member of the Chappel; And if he continue to Work Journey-work in the same House, he pays another half Crown, and is then a Member of the Chappel.

“The Printers of London, Masters and Journey-men, have every Year a general Feast, which since the re-building of Stationers Hall is commonly kept there. This Feast is made by four Stewards, viz. two Masters and two Journey-men; which Stewards, with the Collection of half a Crown apiece of every Guest, defray the Charges of the whole Feast; And as they collect the Half-Crowns, they deliver every Guest a Ticket, wherein is specified the Time and Place they are to meet at, and the Church they are to go to: To which Ticket is affixed the Names and Seals of each Steward.

“It is commonly kept on or about May-day: When, about ten a Clock in the Morning they meet at Stationers Hall, and from thence go to some Church thereabouts; Four Whifflers (as Servitures) by two and two walking before with White Staves in their Hands, and Red and Blew Ribbons hung Belt-wise upon their left Shoulders. Those go before to make way for the Company. Then walks the Beadle of the Company of Stationers, with the Company’s Staff in his Hand, and Ribbons as the Whifflers, and after him the Divine (whom the Stewards before ingag’d to Preach them a Sermon) and his Reader. Then the Stewards walk by two and two, with long White Wands in their Hands, and all the rest of the Company follows, till they enter the Church.

“Then Divine Service begins, Anthems are Sung, and a Sermon Preached to suit the Solemnity: Which ended, they in the same order walk back again to Stationers Hall; where they are immediately entertain’d with the City Weights and other Musick: And as every Guest enters, he delivers his Ticket (which gives him Admittance) to a Person appointed by the Stewards to receive it.

“The Master, Wardens and other Grandees of the Company (although perhaps no Printers) are yet commonly invited, and take their Seats at the upper Table, and the rest of the Company where it pleases them best. The Tables being furnish’d with variety of Dishes of the best Cheer: And to make the entertainment more splendid is usher’d in with Loud Musick. And after Grace is said (commonly by the Minister that Preach’d the Sermon) every one Feasts himself with what he likes Best; whiles the Whifflers and other Officers Wait with Napkins, Plates, Beer, Ale, and Wine, of all sorts, to accommodate each Guest according to his desire. And to make their Cheer go cheerfuller down, are entertained with Musick and Songs all Dinner time.

“Dinner being near ended, the Kings and the Dukes Healths is begun, by the several Stewards at the several Tables, and goes orderly round to all the Guests.

“And whiles these Healths are Drinking, each Steward sets a Plate on each Table, beginning at the upper end, and conveying it downwards, to Collect the Benevolence of Charitable minds towards the relief of Printers Poor Widows. And at the same time each Steward distributes a Catalogue of such Printers as have held Stewards ever since the Feast was first kept, viz. from the Year of Christ 1621.

“After Dinner, and Grace said, the Ceremony of Electing new Stewards for the next Year begins: Therefore the present Stewards withdraw into another Room: And put Garlands of Green Lawrel, or of Box on their Heads, and White-wands in their Hands, and are again Usher’d out of the withdrawing Room by the Beadle of the Company, with the Companys Staff in his Hand, and with Musick sounding before them: Then follows one of the Whifflers with a great Bowl of White-wine and Sugar in his Right Hand, and his Whifflers Staff in his Left: Then follows the Eldest Steward, and then another Whiffler, as the first, with a Bowl of White-wine and Sugar before the second Steward, and in like manner another Whiffler before the Third, and another before the Fourth. And thus they walk with Musick sounding before them three times round the Hall: And in a fourth round the first Steward takes the Bowl of his Whiffler and Drinks to one (whom before he resolved on) by the Title of Mr. Steward Elect: And taking the Garland off his own Head puts it upon the Steward Elects Head. At which Ceremony the Spectators clap their Hands, and such as stand on the Tables or Benches, so Drum with their Feet that the whole Hall is filled with Noise, as applauding the Choice. Then the present Steward takes out the Steward Elect, giving him the Right Hand, and walks with him Hand in Hand, behind the three present Stewards another Round about the Hall: And in the next Round, as aforesaid, the second Steward Drinks to another with the same Ceremony as the first did; and so the Third Steward, and so the Fourth, and then all walk one Round more Hand in Hand about the Hall, that the Company may take notice of the Stewards Elect. And so ends the Ceremony of the Day.

“This Ceremony being over, such as will go their ways; but others that stay, are Diverted with Musick, Songs, Dancing, Farcing, &c. till at last they all find it time to depart.”

Ancient Names of Cities and Towns. See Names.

Anglo-Saxon. See Saxon.


anglos

An imitation RUSSIA LEATHER made in Great Britain from cowhide. See also: AMERICAN RUSSIA.

Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.


anhydrous

A term normally used with reference to the chemical salts and solvents, lanolin, etc., meaning that they are free of water.


anhydrous lanolin

See LANOLIN.


aniline

An aromatic primary amine (C6H5NH2). It is a derivative of ammonia in which one hydrogen atom is replaced by the phenyl group. It is manufactured by the reduction of nitrobenzene with iron filings and either hydrochloric acid or ferrous chloride, and subsequent steam distillation after the addition of lime. Aniline is an oily, colorless, toxic liquid, which darkens upon exposure to air. It is soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, and forms a number of salts. It is the base from which a great number of intermediates for dyes are prepared, including dimethylaniline and diethylaniline, which in turn yield many so-called BASIC DYES, such as methyl violet, methyline blue and malachite green.


aniline dyed

A leather that has been dyed by immersion in a dyebath and has not received any coating or pigment finish.

British Standards Institution. British standard glossary of leather terms. B. S. 2780: 1956. London. British Standards Institution.


aniline dyes

A class of synthetic, organic dyes originally obtained from aniline (coal tars), which were, in fact, the first synthetic dyes. Today the term is used with reference to any synthetic organic dyes and pigments, regardless of source, in contrast to animal or vegetable coloring materials, natural earth pigments, and synthetic inorganic pigments. Aniline dyes are classified according to their degree of brightness or their light fastness. Basic dyes are known for their extreme brightness, as well as for their lack of COLOR FASTNESS.

Aniline dyes are used to impart color to paper, cloth, leather, etc. Also called "coal tar dyes." See also: ACID DYES; BASIC DYES; DIRECT DYES; DYE; LAKE.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Hitchcock, Frederick H. The building of a book…2nd ed. New York. Bowker. 1929.


aniline ink

An inexpensive volatile printing ink consisting of a dyestuff dissolved in a methylated spirit and bound with a resin. It is considered to be a very fast drying ink. Aniline inks are considerably inferior in permanence to many other types of ink, and are also subject to smudging by water. Although all colors are available, they are lacking in COLOR FASTNESS.

A laboratory handbook of pulp and paper manufacture. 2nd ed. London. Arnold. 1961.


aniline leather

A hide or skin that has been tanned with a vegetable material and then colored either by immersion in a dyebath or by staining, and has not been coated or pigmented. Leather so colored has a depth of coloring said to be superior to pigment coloration.

Waterer, John William. A guide to the conservation and restoration of objects made wholly or in part of leather. 2nd ed. London. Bell. 1973.


aniline stained

A leather that has been colored by brushing, padding, or spraying, but which has not received any coating or pigmented finish.


animal glue

See: GLUE.


animal size

See: SIZE.

Abbey, John Roland. An exhibition of modern English and French bindings from the collection of Major J. R. Abbey. London. Arts Council. 1949.

French and Italian collectors and their bindings, illustrated from examples in the library of J. R. Abbey. Edited by A. R. A. Hobson. Oxford. Printed for presentation to the members of the Roxburghe Club. 1953.


animal sized

A paper sized with a gelatin or glue (and sometimes alum, which acts as an insolubilizer). The gelatin or glue-and-alum solution acts as a preservative and enhances the water resistance of the paper. Generally, only high-grade writing papers, bonds, ledgers, and handmade paper are animal sized. See also: SURFACE SIZED; TUB SIZED.

Clowes, William Beaufoy. A guide to printing. London. Heineman. 1963.

Stevenson, George A. Graphic arts encyclopedia. New York. McGraw-Hill. 1968.


animals-in-foliage panel

A form of decoration consisting of a PANEL (1) divided in half vertically, each half containing curving foliage with an animal within each curve.

Oldham, James Basil. English blind-stamped bindings. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1952.


anionic (substances)

Substances, such as dyes, tannins, oils, etc., that dissolve in water and ionize so that the characteristic ion (dye, tannin, oil, etc.) is the anion and carries a negative charge. They tend to precipitate with CATIONIC (positive charge) SUBSTANCES.

Crown Zellerbach Corp. Making pulp and paper. San Francisco. Crown Zellerbach Corp. 1958. 1 vol.

Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.


aniseed

The seed of anise (Pimpinella anisum), which produces a pungent oil once used as a preservative for paste.


anisotropic behavior

A material, e.g., paper, that exhibits different properties when tested along axes of different direction. Because paper is hygroscopic, a change in the dimension of its fibers takes place when the relative humidity around it changes; the change is transmitted to the entire sheet, with the result that its length and width are increased or decreased. As the majority of the fibers in machine-made paper lie in the direction of the moving wire of the papermaking machine, i.e., the MACHINE DIRECTION, by far the greater expansion or contraction of dimension of such a paper is in the CROSS DIRECTION, sometimes being on the order of 1.5 to 4.0 times that in the machine direction.

Paper exhibits anisotropic behavior basically because of two factors: 1) as stated above, the orientation of the fibers in the machine direction causes them, and therefore the sheet, to expand or contract preferentially in the cross direction. In fact, at one time it was thought that this was the major reason for anisotropic behavior in paper; 2) more recently, however, although orientation of the fibers is still thought to play a role in the behavior, the major reason is considered to be built-in strain, also known as dried-in strain. The matting of fibers formed from the wet slurry on the wire of the machine moves into the dry end of the papermaking machine and is dried rapidly in the drier sections. Because it is wet, the web will contract during drying. Because the tension of the web is in the plane of the machine direction, the paper is able to contract considerably in the cross direction but not in the machine direction, which results in a built- or dried-in strain. The drying is actually so rapid that relaxation of the strain is impossible on the machine, nor does it occur after the web of paper leaves the machine as the dried paper does not have sufficient plasticity for this to happen. Consequently, a machine-made paper has an inherent dried-in strain. Actually, there is some dried-in strain in the cross direction also, as the felts of the machine reduce shrinkage somewhat in that direction. This characteristic results in an anisotropic sheet, one which will expand more in the cross direction than in the machine direction when exposed to an increase in the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere. If, at some time in the future, the paper is wetted in water, the dried-in strains will be released and, if the sheet is then allowed to dry freely and without restraint, its anisotropic characteristics will be largely lost. Anisotropic characteristics in paper are of great importance in printing, especially in printing processes which involve wetting the paper.


annatto

A yellowish-red coloring material obtained from the pulp surrounding the seeds of the annatto tree (Bixa orellana), and sometimes used in coloring leather and cloth. It is soluble in both alcohol and oil. Its lack of COLOR FASTNESS makes it unsuitable for archival use.


antelope-finish suede

A fine, soft leather having a velvety, lustrous nap. It is produced from lamb-, goat-, or calfskin, sueded on the flesh side and finished to resemble antelope leather.


ANTEPENULTIMATE

The last syllable but two of a word.


antiblocking agent

A substance used in either a coating mixture or as an overcoating to prevent one sheet of paper from adhering to another, or to any other object, within a specified range of temperature and humidity. Antiblocking agents are usually waxes or synthetic polymers; a light dusting of talcum powder is sometimes used for the same purpose.