flat back binding

1. A hand-bound book which has not been rounded and backed before the boards are attached. The term is also sometimes applied to a book which has lost its round; however FLAT SPINE is a more appropriate term for this condition. The spine of a flat back binding has a tendency to become concave. Also called "square back." See also: FLAT BACK CASE BINDING. 2. A leather binding which does not have bands appearing on the spine.

Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).

Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.


flat back case binding

A simple type of (library) binding which has a flat spine and is cased or has a one-piece covering. This type of binding is suitable for typescript, some pamphlets, and adhesive-bound paperbacks.

Bookbinding and the Conservation of Books: A Dictionary of Descriptive Terminology

US Government publication (Library of Congress), published openly in electronic edition by CoOL. Not a Gutenberg/pre-1930 public-domain text -- verify rights before reprinting rather than quoting.

Percival, George Stanley, and Rigby Graham. Unsewn binding. 2nd ed. Leicester. Dryad. 1966.


flat cut index

See: CUT THROUGH INDEX.


flat finish

A paper having a smooth, glare-free finish.


flat spine

The shape given to books in the 1820s. They were not the same as the FLAT BACK BINDING because they were backed but not rounded, or had very little rounding. The flat spine and HOLLOW BACK came into use at about the same time.


flats

An old term applied to papers of various types which have a well closed, even formation and a high finish, and which are particularly suitable for writing purposes. The term derives from the practice of counting into quires and then folding the pack. When it became the practice to deliver writing papers unfolded, they were called "flats." Today the term is usually restricted to papers such as tablet paper, as well as to paper with a smooth, flat finish as distinguished from bond finish.

Labarre, E. J. Dictionary and encyclopaedia of paper and papermaking. 2nd ed. London. Oxford University Press. 1952.


flax

The bast fiber from the inner bark of the flax plant (Linun usitatissimum), and the source of linen for thousands of years. The bast fiber is about 25 mm long and approximately 0.02 mm thick, giving it a length to diameter ratio of about 1,250:1. It is thinner than the cotton fiber and its tube has thicker walls. It is also stiffer and stronger than cotton, has a rounded section and is knotted at intervals along its length. Linen rags, cuttings, thread, etc., have long been used in the manufacture of paper. See also: BOOK CLOTH; SEWING THREAD.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Grant, Julius. Books & documents; dating, permanence and preservation. London. Grafton. 1937.


flaying

The process of removing the hide or skin from an animal carcass. Flaying is normally the job of the butcher, and, in general, the methods used in flaying give first priority to producing a good quality carcass, not hide, as the animal is generally slaughtered for its meat.

The animal should be in a clean, healthy condition and the slaughter rapid and efficient. Bruising should be carefully avoided. The animal is bled after slaughter to remove blood from the carcass and also from the small veins and arteries in the skin. If this is not done rapidly, the blood will clot and putrefy, resulting in blue-black markings in the skin. The skin should also be removed immediately, while the carcass is still warm, as removal then is much easier. Subsequent to flaying, the skin cools down more quickly, giving less chance of putrefaction. Some form of curing generally follows flaying. See also: BRINING; DRY-SALTING; PUTREFACTIVE DAMAGE; WET-SALTING.

O'Flaherty, Fred, and others, eds. The chemistry and technology of leather. New York. Reinhold. (American Chemical Society monograph series, no. 134. 1956-65. 4 vol.

Reed, Ronald. Ancient skin, parchments and leathers. London. Seminar Press. 1972.

Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


flea seed

A small, brown, hard seed, so called because of its resemblance to a flea. It is boiled in water to make MARBLING SIZE.

It was usually used in combination with GUM TRAGACANTH in the execution of the shell and Spanish marble patterns. It was not (and apparently could not) be used for the drawn or combed marbles, as it dragged the colors and did not allow the comb to pass through smoothly. As it has no advantage over CARRAGHEEN MOSS or gum tragacanth, its use was never extensive and it is seldom if ever used at all today.

Loring, Rosamond Bowditch. Decorated book papers…1st ed. 1942; 2nd ed. 1952. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.

Woolnough, Charles W. The whole art of marbling as applied to paper, book edges…Rev. ed. London. Bell. 1881.


flesh side

The side of a hide or skin next to the animal, or the side opposite the grain side. See also: BUFFING (1); REVERSE CALF; SPLIT.


flesh split

1. The inner layer of a hide or skin separated from the main part of the skin by means of a splitting machine. 2. The leather made from such a split. See also: FLESHER.

British Standards Institution. British standard glossary of leather terms. B. S. 2780: 1956. London. British Standards Institution.


flesher

The inside split (flesh split) of a lamb- or sheepskin, embossed and finished in imitation of grained leather, and used at times for lining the spines of cheaper blankbooks. See also: BUFFING (1).

Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


fleshing

One of the beamhouse operations in leather manufacture. Fleshing consists of the removal of areolar tissue from the flesh side of a hide or skin. It usually precedes liming, and is generally done by means of a fleshing machine, or, in hand work, by working the skin over the beam with a sharp, two-handed knife. In European tanneries, fleshing generally takes place following liming and unhairing.

Fleshing promotes the entry of water from the flesh side, which is important as water is absorbed more readily from the flesh side than from the epidermal or grain side. Fleshing also flattens and stretches the skin, has a pronounced cleaning action, and, in the case of greasy skin, such as domestic sheep or pig, removes a quantity of surplus fat.

Good, clean fleshing is important for the success of all subsequent processes, as bits of flesh or fat on the skin can retard the penetration of tannins, fatliquors, and the like. See also: GREEN FLESHING.


fleur-de-lis-lozenge

A lozenge shaped finishing tool made up of a fleur-de-lis, or a variation thereof, the three pedals and stalks of which extend to fill the four corners.

Oldham, James Basil. English blind-stamped bindings. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1952.


fleuron

A finishing tool cut in a nondescript form, partly floral or foliage in nature, generally of a lozenge shape and generally used to fill the lozenge compartments of a panel that is divided by diagonal fillets.


Flexible

When a book is sewn on raised bands and the thread is passed entirely round each band.

Public domain (Project Gutenberg, pre-1930 text)


Flexible

A book sewn on raised bands, with the thread passed entirely around each band, allowing the book to open freely.

Bib-li-op-e-gis-tic: Pertaining to the Art of Binding Books


Flexible

When a book is sewn on raised bands, and the thread is passed entirely round each band. It is the strongest sewing done at the present time. This term is often misused for limp work, because the boards are limp or flexible.

The Art of Bookbinding: A Practical Treatise


flexible adhesives

See: ADHESIVES; FLEXIBLE GLUE; INTERNALLY PLASTICIZED; RESINOUS ADHESIVES.


Flexible binding

When a book is sewn on raised bands or cords and the thread is passed entirely round each band, and the whole binding is such as to permit the book to be opened readily.


flexible endpaper

An endpaper designed to provide a flyleaf that is heavier than a single sheet of paper, but is still flexible enough to not interfere with the opening of the book. Developed at the workshop of British binders Roger Powell and Peter Waters between 1960 and 1965, this endpaper is constructed by tipping two folios together in two places: along the spine and along the fore edge.


flexible glue

Generally, an ordinary animal glue containing GLYCEROL or SORBITOL, the softening effect of the latter supposedly lasting longer than the former. These softening agents, or "humectants," are hygroscopic and may, under certain conditions, absorb so much moisture as to promote the growth of mold; consequently a mold inhibitor is generally included in the plasticizer.

The origin of "flexible" animal glues is unknown, but they were certainly in use since early in the 20th century. Their use in bookbinding, however, has declined sharply in recent years in favor of INTERNALLY PLASTICIZED synthetic adhesives, such as the RESINOUS ADHESIVES.

Langwell, William Herbert. The conservation of books and documents. London. Pitman. 1957

Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


flexible glue

This is usually made by adding about two tablespoonfuls of glycerine to half a pound of the glue in a dry state.


flexible not to show

A method of sewing the sections of a book in which the spine of the gathered sections is sawn lightly so that the saw cuts do not penetrate completely through the folds of the sections. The sewing is then done on thin cords, encircling them as in FLEXIBLE SEWING.

If the cords project above the spine after sewing they are hammered into the grooves during backing. Books sewn in this manner may have hollow or tight backs; in the case of the hollow back, the purpose of sewing not to show apparently is to prevent creasing of the leather of the spine by the cords, while attempting to retain the strength of genuine flexible sewing. In the case of the tight back, the purpose is to have a smooth spine and a book with sewing that is stronger than is possible with RECESSED-CORD SEWING; however, in this case, most of the desired benefits are negated because of the need to make the cords extremely thin.

Zaehnsdorf, Joseph William. The art of bookbinding…London. Bell. 1890.


flexible sewing

A method of sewing the sections of a book to cords or bands which are above the backs of the sections and rest against them, instead of being recessed into the paper. See: RECESSED-CORD SEWING.

The sewing thread is looped completely around the cords, instead of passing in front of them. This type of sewing may be done on single or double cords and is one of the strongest forms of hand sewing known. The method was in use in Europe as early as the 8th century, and represents the foundation upon which hand bookbinding was built and developed for a thousand years.

The number of bands, which were always double (i.e., two cords or thongs adjacent to each other and almost touching), on which 12th and 13th century books were sewn varied from two to five (in the latter case the cords being spaced so there was a greater space between the cords than between the end bands and the head and tail of the book), although examples of books sewn on as many as fourteen cords are known. The use of double cords gradually diminished, however, and by the middle of the 16th century the technique of sewing on single cords had become fairly well established, although largely for smaller books and economical bindings.

The use of flexible sewing has been dominant in fine binding until the present day; however, its use declined sharply from the end of the 18th century until the end of the 19th century, when it was revived to some extent due to the efforts of T.J. Cobden-Sanderson and Douglas Cockerell.

Flexible sewing is not suitable for books printed on very heavy paper, nor in cases where the book is made up of very thick sections. It is also unsuitable for use with coated papers. If used on small volumes, the sewing thread and, therefore, the cords, must be proportionally thinner; otherwise there will be a reduction in flexibility. (]61, 72, 236, 335, 343)


flexible sewing

When the cord rests on instead of being sunk into the back and the thread is carried around it; a book thus sewn usually opens freely.


flexural strength

A measure of the ability of an adhesive film to withstand repeated flexing, bending, twisting, etc. Flexural strength is of paramount importance in the adhesives used in archival work in general, and bookbinding in particular, especially in adhesives used for gluing up the spine and adhesive binding.

McGuire, Edward Patrick. American adhesive index. Mountainside, N. J. Padric. 1962.


flint hides

Hides dried without curing.


flock paper

A speciality cover paper produced by coating the sheet with size, either all over or in patterns or designs, and then applying specially dyed flock powder. Flock paper originally was intended to simulate tapestry and Italian velvet brocade.


flock powder

Very short or pulverized fiber, such as wool, cotton, or rayon, used in flock printing and to form velvety patterns on cloth and paper.


floriated

A border, initial letter, or book decorated with small flower or leaf ornaments.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


floss

Cotton or silk thread used in binding single section pamphlets, usually by side sewing tied in a bowknot.

Palmer, Elbridge Woodman. A course in bookbinding for vocational training. New York. Employing bookbinders of America. 1927.


flour

See: FINES.


flourish style

See: FANFARE STYLE.


flower-headed rivet

A finishing tool cut with an ornamental head in a design resembling a daisy.


FLOWERS

Types with ornaments cast on their face instead of letters. They are used for borders round jobs, cards, pages, and wrappers of books; and for other embellishments.

Luckombe, in his work on printing, gave many specimens of borders, head pieces, &c. composed of flowers by Mr. Hazard, of Bath; and lately, Mr. Johnson and Mr. Nichols have produced some large and elaborate pieces with this material, by combining an immense number of pieces of different patterns and sizes, to represent pillars and arches; but after all the ingenuity they have displayed, and the patience they have exerted, their productions are inferior to the effect of an engraving; and only tend to prove, in my opinion, that ingenuity and patience are misapplied.

Flowers are cast on bodies from a Pearl up to a Four Line Pica, and of a great variety of patterns. Of late years our letter founders have greatly improved their specimens by the addition of many new designs.

The practice formerly was to cut the pattern perfect on each piece, and many patterns had a line at the foot of each, so that when a border was formed, there was a continual line round the inside. I pointed out to the late Mr. Catherwood, of the firm of Caslon and Catherwood, the inconvenience of both these modes of cutting flowers: in the first case, when the pattern had a solid ground, the flowers joined in that solid part, and, after being used a few times, the angle became rounded, and always showed a separation between each piece; I recommended that the junction should be in the most open part of the design, so that a little rounding of the angle would not be so perceptible: and in the second case, the same cause produced the same effect; for after being used a few times, the angles became rounded, and instead of a continued line, it became a series of short lines, separated from each other by intervals: to remedy this, I suggested to him to discard the line, and that a piece of brass rule should be substituted by the printer, which, being in one piece, would form a continued line, and not be liable to injury from the same cause. He adopted both these plans, and the junction of the flowers that have been subsequently cut has been much improved; but the abolishing of the line has not produced the neat effect I anticipated, for it rarely happens that the printer will take the trouble of placing a rule within the flowers; in consequence, many of the designs present, when printed, a meagre and unfinished appearance.


fluffing

1. The process of reducing the substance and smoothing the flesh side of a skin or hide during leather manufacture. See also: BUFFING (2); SNUFFING. 2. The removal of the free or loosely bonded fibers, loading material or dust from the surface of paper during impression. Fluff is a particular defect encountered in lithographic printing, and results in the printed matter showing white or gray images in paper fibers, or other material, removed from the surface of the paper.

Coupe, Raymond Richard. Science of printing technology. London. Cassell. 1966.


flush

See: CUT FLUSH.


flush board binding

A style of binding having the boards glued to the board papers and a paper cover glued to the boards. The book is then CUT FLUSH.


FLY

See Devil.—M. A boy who takes the printed sheets off the tympan as soon as the pressman turns it up, for the sake of despatch: it was most frequently done with newspapers, as they are always pressed for time, and are obliged to work with the greatest expedition. These boys are not now called devils, as in the time of Moxon, but Flies, or Fly Boys.


FLY

The person or apparatus that takes off the sheets from the press.

The American Printer: A Manual of Typography


fly embossing press

An early version of the BLOCKING PRESS, which was capable of exerting the enormous pressure required to block covers with engraved plates often of the same size as the cover, even quartos and folios. This type of press was probably introduced sometime in the late 1820s by JOSEPH THOUVENIN and was used extensively until the later part of the 19th century. The description "fly" may stem from the instantaneous release of pressure (the platen "flying" up).

Leighton, Douglas. Modern bookbinding: a survey and a prospect. New York. Oxford University Press. 1935.


fly leaf

A leaf or leaves at the beginning and end of a book, being the leaf or leaves not pasted to the boards, or covers, of the book. See also: ENDPAPERS.

Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


Fly leaves

The blank leaves at the beginning and end of a book, between the end papers and the book proper.


FLYING FRISKET

In working at press, the act of turning down the frisket and the tympan upon the form by the same motion, for despatch; it is always done in the regular way of working, but not in very superior work where the paper is heavy.


flying out

A convex shape to the fore edge of a book, resulting from lack of, or improper, rounding, backing, lining of the spine, or a combination thereof.


flyswing

A very thin SKIVER used extensively for title labels on cloth- and leather-bound books, and generally lettered in gold. In library binding, the "flyswing" has been replaced by labels of paper and (occasionally) cloth.


Fogel, Johannes

One of the most celebrated of German bookbinders, Fogel bound at least one and perhaps as many as four copies of the Gutenberg Bible, one of which bears his signature. Fogel's tools included a rope knot and a lute player stamp, as well as triple fillets accompanied by rosettes. He also worked finely made headbands in red, white, and blue silk. All of his bindings are decorated in a manner characteristic of ERFURT BINDINGS, having the long, narrow center panel enclosed in a broad border, with all lines crossing at the ends to form squares in the corners.

Little is known of Fogel after 1460. All of his extant signed bindings are thought to have been bound at Erfurt before 1460, and by 1461 some of his stamps were being used in conjunction with others and without his signature on the bindings, but it is not known whether he retired from binding or just stopped signing his bindings. In 1462 his lute player and rope knot finishing tools appear on a binding signed by Paulus Lehener. It is possible, although probably unlikely, that he discarded some tools and acquired others.

Goldschmidt, Ernst Philip. Gothic and Renaissance bookbindings. 2nd ed. Amsterdam. Israel. 1967. 2 vol.


foil

See: BLOCKING FOIL.


fold and dye papers

Decorative end- and cover-papers which have been folded (in parallel folds several times or into accordion pleats) and painted with color along the edges and corners, or dipped into a dye or paint mixture. Japanese papers are usually used in this technique.

Johnson, Pauline. Creative bookbinding. Seattle. University of Washington Press. 1963.


fold binder

One of the simplest forms of "binding," consisting of a sheet of cover stock with a series of scores running vertically and extending outward from the center fold to allow for expansion. The grain of the cover stock should run from head to tail so as to facilitate folding and scoring.

Grimm, Francis W. A primer to bookbinding. Boston. Houghton Mifflin. 1939.


fold sewing

A general term applied to sewing a book through the folds of the sections. See: FLEXIBLE SEWING; FRENCH SEWING; MACHINE SEWING; RECESSED-CORD SEWING; TAPE SEWING (1)


fold to paper

An instruction to the binder to fold the printed sheets of a book so that the edges of the leaves and bolts are even. Cf: FOLD TO PRINT.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


fold to print

An instruction to the binder to fold the printed sheets of a book to register, i.e., the edges of the printed areas are to be placed exactly over one another. C: FOLD TO PAPER.


folded book

A form of book consisting of a long strip of paper folded "concertina-wise" and attached at one or both ends to stiff covers. The "folded book" is common in the Orient but much less so in other parts of the world, except in books of an unusual nature, such as books of a pictorial nature with views of places and/or panoramas.


folder

1. A thin length of wood, bone, ivory, or other material, from 6 to 12 inches long, and 1 to 1 1/2 inches wide. The typical folder is approximately 1/8 inch thick. It is tapered to the edges, has rounded edges and ends, and is used in folding sheets by hand and cutting bolts, and also in numerous binding operations. 2. See: FOLDING MACHINES. 3. A publication consisting of one sheet of paper folded to make two or more leaves but not stitched or cut. 4. A large sheet of stiff paper, usually manila, folded once. It has a projection or tag for heading at the top of the rear portion.

Lewis, Arthur William. Basic bookbinding. New York. Dover, 1957.


folder

This is a flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding the sheets and in many other manipulations. Also applied to a female engaged in folding sheets.


folder

A flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding sheets, and in many other manipulations; called also a folding stick. A female engaged in folding sheets.


folder

a flat piece of ivory or bone, like a paper knife, used in folding sheets and in various other operations.


folder

A flat piece of bone or ivory used in folding the sheets and in many other manipulations. Also applied to the person engaged in folding sheets.


folding

The process of folding flat printed sheets into sections. The number of leaves in a single folded sheet is always a multiple of two: 4, 8, 16, 32, and 64 leaves, giving 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 pages respectively. Sections with 6, 12, 18 etc., leaves may be obtained by the use of other than standard types of folding, or by the use of more than one sheet, e.g., an envelope fold followed by a right angle fold will give 6 leaves (12 pages), or a full sheet folded three times, plus a half sheet folded twice and insetted within the full sheet will give a section of 12 leaves (24 pages). Although a single sheet of paper can be folded nine times, in bookwork it is unusual to find a sheet folded more than four times, and most sheets are slit or perforated if they are to be folded at right angles more than twice, so as to reduce wrinkling and buckling.

The principal folds are the parallel (or buckle) and right angle, with the latter being the most commonly used fold in bookwork. The parallel fold is generally used for very narrow books, or for those that are printed TWO UP.

The third most commonly used fold, though used far less than either of the preceding, is the concertina fold, which is used for maps and folders, as well as for some book sections.

Almost all folding today is done by machine; however, in the early days of the folding machine, the work was so inaccurate that good folding could be done only by hand.

Folding is done "to the paper" or "to the print," i.e., register. See also: FOLD TO PAPER; FOLD TO PRINT; FOLDING MACHINES; IMPOSITION; REGISTER (4).

Clowes, William Beaufoy. A guide to printing. London. Heineman. 1963.

Jennett, Sean. The making of books. 4th ed. New York. Praeger. 1967.

Martin, A. G. Finishing processes in printing. New York. Focal Press. 1972.

Melcher, Daniel, and Nancy Larrick. Printing and promotion handbook …3rd ed. New York. McGraw-Hill. 1966.

U.S. Government Printing Office. Theory and practice of bookbinding. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1962.

Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.


FOLDING

In the warehouse. As the person who collates the books turns them, the gatherings lie ready to be folded, and as they are pushed a little over each other they are readily taken up separately; they are knocked up at the ends and sides, and evenly folded in the back, which is rubbed down with a folder; after this, from a dozen to twenty-five gatherings in thickness are knocked up together and put into the press, which is thus filled and screwed down. After lying a sufficient time in the press, they are taken out and are ready for booking.

Books are never folded across a page; of course some require to be folded the shortest way of the paper, and some the longest way.


folding book

See: FOLDED (FOLDING) BOOK,


folding endurance

The number of folds which a specimen (usually paper) will withstand before failure, under controlled conditions in a specified instrument. In the usual test, a specimen is subjected repeatedly to double folds through a wide angle while under tension.

Folding endurance is a very important indication of the durability of archival papers. The test is usually conducted in an environmental room. A decline in folding endurance is the most sensitive indicator of aging and deterioration of paper.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Britt, Kenneth W., ed. Handbook of pulp and paper technology. 2nd ed. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970.


folding in gangs

A method of folding printed sheets by means of a folding machine that folds a large sheet into several sections in one operation. As the sheet passes through the machine, it is folded, cut into sections, the heads are slit and the sections are then delivered singly or inset.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


FOLDING MACHINE

A machine invented to fold sheets, generally used in newspaper offices.


folding machines

Machines that fold flat printed sheets into sections. The two main features of modern folding machines are: 1) the knife which dips between two rotating rollers that form a "nip;" and 2) the plate that forms an envelope into which the sheet is propelled, bending or buckling it along a desired line as it makes its exit from the plate.

Three main types of folding machines are in use today: the knife folder, buckle (or plate) folder, and combination folders, which are machines that employ both knife and buckle folding in different stages in the same machine. All three types are designed to take standard sizes of paper and are suitable for different types and classes of work.

In the knife folder, a blunt-edged knife is set parallel with and above the slot formed by the two rollers. The rollers revolve continuously so that when a sheet is placed over them and the knife descends, the paper is caught between the rollers and carried away, a fold being made where the knife made contact. In practice the sheets are fed one at a time to stops, either by hand or by mechanical feeders, and are carried by moving tapes beneath the knife where they are precisely positioned mechanically for folding. The knife having descended, the sheet, now folded once, is carried by rollers and tapes to a second unit of knife and rollers where a second fold is made, then a third fold, etc., the folded sheets (now sections) being delivered to a stacker. If any knife is at right angles to the previous unit a fold at right angles to the previous fold is made; however, if the machine is constructed with the folding units parallel to preceding folds then parallel folds are made. If it is desired to slit the sheet into individual sections during folding, the sheet will travel through rotary slitters when passing from one folding unit to the next, and the individual sections of the sheet will be conveyed to individual folding units. In this manner, a sheet printed with 64 pages can be slit into four parts producing four individual 16-page sections. Machines are normally provided with perforators which perforate the bolts, thus preventing wrinkling and buckling.

Buckle folders work on a different principle. The sheet is fed end first between a pair of continuously revolving rollers and the leading edge is guided between two closely spaced plates, the plane of the plates being at an angle of 45° to the plane of feeding. The plates are fitted with internal adjustable stops, and when the leading edge of the sheet hits these stops further forward motion is prevented. The latter half of the sheet, however, is still being propelled forward by the rollers and, being already bent at an angle of 45°, the sheet buckles at the point of entry to the plates. The buckle is gripped between the lower roller and a third roller in contact with it and the buckle passes between these rollers, thus forming a fold. The portion of the sheet between the plates is immediately withdrawn by this action, leaving the mechanism clear for the next sheet. The sheet continues to be propelled by rollers and the folded edge may be deflected into a second and then third plate, producing additional folds parallel to the first. Buckle folders frequently incorporate knife folding units, the knives being used to make folds at right angles to the parallel buckle fold. As with knife folding machines, perforators and slitters are incorporated for use at various stages of folding.

Buckle folders are generally run at higher speeds than knife folders, but knife folders are used in book work because they are better adapted for handling a greater diversity of papers. The largest knife folders will fold a flat sheet of 128 pages, producing four 32-page sections, each with four folds. Buckle folders, in their most complex form, can produce almost any series of folds, but, in general, they are used more for the folding of advertising matter than for book work.

The first folding machine is believed to have been introduced in about 1850 by a man named Blake. In 1856, Cyrus Chambers, Jr., patented and sold a folding machine to the Lippincott Publishing Company. Although the accuracy of early folders was poor, with hand folding still predominating for better grade work, development of the folding machine after 1862 was rapid, and in 1873 a machine was patented that would fold a 16-page section and one of 8 pages, inset the latter, and paste it in place. That same year devices to cut and slit paper as it went through the machine were introduced. Automatic feeders were also developed, one being patented in 1855.

Modern folding machines are available in many sizes, capable of folding sheets measuring 4 by 4 inches up to 26 by 60 inches and, in special cases, even up to 50 by 74 inches.

Book Manufacturers' Institute. Helpful aids in book production. New York. Book Manufacturers' Institute. 1953.

Cuneo (John F.) Co. Plan for a good book…Chicago. John F. Cuneo Co. 1951.

Hutchings, Ernest A. D. A survey of printing processes. London. Heinemann. 1970.

Strauss, Victor. The printing industry…Washington, D.C. Printing Industries in America. 1967.


folding needle

A needle, usually of steel imbedded in a wooden handle, and used by some bookbinders in tight places for such work as mitering covers and turning-in on slipcases. It is also used at times for scoring.


folding stick

A long, thin polished piece of wood, bone, plastic, or other material, used when folding paper by hand to crease the sheet without soiling or otherwise damaging it. See also: FOLDER (1).

Horton, Carolyn. Cleaning and preserving bindings and related materials. Chicago. American Library Association. (Conservation of library materials pamphlet no. l; Library Technology Project publications, no. 16). 1969.


folding strength

See: FOLDING ENDURANCE.


foldings

A general term applied to printed sheets which have been folded in various ways to form sections. Foldings from 4 to 128 are given in the table provided below.


foldouts

Inserts that are larger than the trim size of the book or other publication and which must be folded before insertion. When they are the same height as the book but wider they may be tipped in, but when they are both higher and wider, or just higher, they must be LIPPED. See also: FULL APRON; THROW OUT.

Stevenson, George A. Graphic arts encyclopedia. New York. McGraw-Hill. 1968.


foliaged staff

A finishing stamp cut in the form of a branch entwined with foliage, sometimes intertwined with berries. A foliaged staff is usually used to form a frame.

Foldings

Section Size  Symbol      Customary     Leaves  Pages

Number of Folds

Folio             fo           1            2      4

Quarto           4to           2            4      8

Sixmo            6to        varies          6     12

Octavo           8vo           3            8     16

Twelvemo        12mo       varies          12     24

Sixteenmo       16mo           4           16     32

Eighteenmo      18mo        varies         18     36

Twenty-fourmo   24mo        varies         24     48

Thirty-twomo    32mo           5           32     64

Thirty-sixmo    36mo        varies         36     72

Forty-eightmo   48mo        varies         48     96

Sixty-fourmo    64mo        varies         64    128

Oldham, James Basil. English blind-stamped bindings. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. 1952.


foliate

To number the leaves of a book instead of the pages. This results in the rectos and versos having the same number, as 1, 1-2, 2-3, 3-4, 4-5, etc. It is a method of numbering commonly found in blankbooks.

Porte, Roy Trewin. Dictionary of printing terms. 4th ed. Salt Lake City. Porte. 1941.


foliation

1. The total number of leaves, whether numbered or unnumbered, contained in a book or manuscript. 2. The numbering of the leaves of a book or manuscript. Foliation was relatively rare until the last quarter of the 15th century. It consisted originally of the word Folio, or an abbreviation, followed by a Roman numeral. Arabic figures were used in Italy between 1475 and 1500, and outside Italy after 1500. Eventually the Arabic came to be used alone. The numbering of pages (pagination), as opposed to leaves, began to replace foliation near the end of the 16th century but was not finally established until the 18th century. Reference to a page in a foliated book is generally done by using r and v for recto and verso, e.g., 1r or 1v, or by the use of a and b. e.g., 1a or 1b, the latter being preferred because manuscript v is often mistaken for r. Abbreviated ff. See also: PAGINATION.

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.


folio

1. The book size resulting from folding a sheet one time, giving leaves half the size of the sheet. In modern practice double-size paper folded twice, or quad-size paper folded three times would be used, thus producing the requisite folio size but in sections convenient for binding. Abbreviated Fo. or fo. 2. A leaf of parchment or paper numbered only on the recto side. 3. Loosely, the number of a page. 4. An individual leaf of a book.

Oswald, John Clyde. A history of printing; its development through five hundred years. New York. Appleton. 1928.


FOLIO

The running number of the pages of a work. When there is no running title, the folios are placed in the middle of the head-line, in Arabic figures, sometimes enclosed in brackets, sometimes in parentheses, but more frequently now without either; when there is a running title, the folios are placed at the outside corners of the pages. The prefatory matter has the folios generally set in Roman lower case numerals, and sometimes the folios of an appendix are done in a similar manner.

A sheet of paper folded in two leaves, is also termed folio; as folio post, folio demy, &c.; but when the size of a book is spoken of, it is styled a post folio, demy folio, &c.


folio

Two pages to a form.


folio

A sheet folded once, consisting of two leaves, or four pages; the size of the sheet being usually understood as about 19×24 inches, giving a leaf 19×12 inches. Also, the consecutive page numbers of a book, pamphlet, etc.


folio form

Printed sheets that have been folded and gathered, but not bound. See also: GATHERING (1).

Summerfield, Melvin B. Bound-to-stay-bound: the story of a book… Jacksonville, 111. New Method Book Bindery. 1956.


FOLLOW

See if it follows, is a term used as well by the corrector, as by the compositor and pressman. It is used by the corrector and compositor when they examine how the beginning matter of a succeeding page agrees with the ending matter of a precedent page: and how the folios of those pages properly and numerically follow and succeed one another, lest the pages should be transposed. But the pressman only examines that the folio and beginning word of the second page, and signature of the first and third page (when the reiteration is on the press) follow the folio and direction of the first page, and the signature of the third page follows the signature of the first page, orderly according to the volume, lest the form should be laid wrong on the press.—M.

Foot Notes. See Bottom Notes.


font

The complete assortment of all letters and characters in one face and size of type. A type family includes fonts of roman, italic, semi-bold and condensed. See also: TYPE FACE.

American Library Association. Editorial Committee. Subcommittee on library terminology. A. L. A. glossary of library terms, with a selection of terms in related fields. Compiled by Elizabeth H. Thompson. Chicago. American Library Association. 1943.


fonthill style

A particular style of binding in which the books were sewn on raised cords, and were top edge gilt, had marbled paper sides and endpapers, and were covered in half olive-brown morocco. Finishing consisted of lettering and the date at the tail of the spine. The name derives from Fonthill Abbey in Wiltshire, England, which was built toward the end of the 18th century by William Beckford (1759-1844).

Nicholson, James B. A manual of the art of bookbinding… Philadelphia. Baird. 1856.


foot

1. The margin at the bottom of a page of type. 2. The under-surface of type. The plane parallel to the face on which the body of type rests.

Klinefelter, Lee Miller. Bookbinding made easy. Rev. ed. Milwaukee. Bruce. 1960.


FOOT OF A PAGE

The bottom or end of a page.—M.


FOOT OF THE LETTER

The break end of the shank of a letter.—M.


Foot-sticks

Sloping pieces of furniture placed at the bottom of pages, between which and the chase the quoins are driven to fasten the pages.


footage

1. The charge made by the manufacturer or supplier of leather. The method of measurement used in calculating the number of square feet of any particular skin or hide is somewhat complicated, and in practice it is usually found that a skin marked, for example, as four feet, will not give nearly that much area in cut pieces for books; particularly in the case of skins with very ragged edges, e.g., goatskin. The footage charged is usually marked on the flesh side of the skin, and is calculated to the tenth of a foot in the United States, and to a quarter of a foot in England, e.g., 4 = 4 feet, 4/1 = 4 1/4 foot, etc. The measuring is done either by metal pins which record the presence (or absence) of leather by touch, or by a beam of light, which indicates the absence of leather by means of a receptor element. 2. The length or area of a reel of paper expressed in linear or square measure.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


FOOTSTEP,

is a board nailed upon a piece of timber seven or eight inches high, and is bevelled away on its upper side, as is also the board on its under side at its hither end, that the board may stand aslope on the floor. It is placed fast on the floor under the carriage of the press.—M. It is made of elm; and gives the pressman great advantage in pulling when he has a heavy form on the press.


FOOTSTICK

Footsticks are placed against the foot or bottom of the page: the outer sides of these footsticks are bevelled or sloped from the further to the hither end, which allows the quoins to wedge up the pages within the chase.—M. They, as well as sidesticks, which are precisely the same, and used indiscriminately for each other where the length suits, are made of oak; their width is in proportion to their length; for a form of demy octavo the broad end will be about an inch wide, and the narrow end about half an inch; but where a chase is small in proportion to the size of the pages, they are made narrower to allow of quoin room. Their height is the same as that of the other furniture; the outer angle at each end is bevelled off. A careful compositor, when he is making up furniture from the drawer, will cut off the bruised broad end from the old side and footsticks that will suit as to length, and thus economise the furniture, which for jobs and pamphlets will answer every purpose of new.


fore edge

The edge of a book opposite the spine. Sometimes called "front edge."


FORE EDGE

The fore edge, in making margin, is that edge of a sheet of paper, which, when folded to the proper size of the book, forms its outer edge.

Foreign Bills or Notes. See Forgery.


fore edge

The front edge of the book.


fore edge

The front edge of the leaves.


fore-edge binding

A style of binding representing a degree between quarter and half-binding, in which a narrow strip of leather or cloth, usually of the same color as that covering the spine, is attached to the outer extremity of each board. The width of the strip generally varies according to the color and decoration, if any, of the material used to cover the sides.

Collins, Arthur Frederick. Book crafts for senior pupils; a handbook for teachers and students. Leicester. Dryad Press. 1938.


fore-edge margin

The space between the text and the outer extremity of the leaf of a book. Also called "outside margin. See also: BLED; MARGIN (1).


fore-edge painting

A scene painted on the fore edge of a book, either with the edge solid so that the resultant painting is visible with the book closed, or, in the more accepted use of the term, with the edge fanned out so that the painting is not visible with the book closed. When the painting is done with the leaves fanned out, the edge is generally also gilded or marbled in the usual manner, so that the closed book shows no trace whatsoever of the painting. A double fore-edge painting is one with two paintings, which can be viewed independently by fanning the leaves first one way and then the other. A triple fore-edge painting has a visible scene in addition, in which case the edge is not gilded or marbled.

The painting of fore edges is very old, going back perhaps as early as the 10th century. These earliest fore-edge paintings consisted of symbolical designs. The art reached England in the 14th century, and among the early fore-edge paintings, such as those executed by Thomas Berthelet for King Henry VIII, consisted of treating the fore edge as a solid panel for a heraldic or other motif in gold and colors. The binder who originated the technique of painting a design on the fanned out leaves is unknown, although Samuel Mearne is thought to have employed one or more artists and binders who did this kind of painting. The first known disappearing painting dates from 1649; the art of fore-edge painting under gold reached its pinnacle in England in the latter half of the 17th century.

The art of painting landscapes on fore edges, rather than floral scrolls and armorial bearings, was pioneered by William EDWARDS OF HALIFAX, sometime around 1750. He first used monochrome (brown or gray) and later a full range of colors. Portraits were also included, often flanking a landscape. Subjects portrayed included countrysides, buildings, sports, and scenes based on the content of the book being decorated. The types of books commonly treated in this manner were Bibles and prayer books, the classics, travel books, and poetry.

Although the art of fore-edge painting is old, there is clear evidence indicating that the majority of such paintings are the work of the late 19th and 20th centuries, mainly on books dating from the early 19th century. The great number of these paintings was in response to the demand of collectors and, because there was an insufficient number of authentic examples, appropriate books of an earlier time were painted to satisfy this demand.

Book collector. London. Queen Anne Press.

Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.

Middleton, Bernard C. A history of English craft bookbinding technique. New York. Hafner. 1963.


fore-edge tab

See: INDEX TAB.


fore-edge title

The title of a book written on its fore edge to identify it. This was a common practice in the 16th century when it was customary to shelve books with their fore edges outward.


FOREDGE

The front edge of a book.


FOREDGE

(fore edge), the front edge of the leaves. Pronounced “forrege.”


forel

A grade of PARCHMENT made from a split sheepskin and dressed in imitation of VELLUM.

It is not a strong skin and tends to be greasy, which causes difficulties in trying to make it adhere to the boards of a book. Also called "forrel-' and (rarely) "forril."

Horne, Herbert Percy. The binding of books; an essay in the history of gold-tooled bindings. 2nd ed. New York. Haskell House. 1970.

Vaughan, Alexander J. Modern bookbinding; a treatise covering both letterpress and stationery branches of the trade…New ed. London. Skilton. 1960.


FORESTAY

An upright support to the fore end of the frame and long ribs on which the carriage runs. It is fastened to the floor, and screwed to the frame.


FORGERY

1 Geo. 4. c. 92. “An Act for the further Prevention of forging and counterfeiting of Bank Notes.”

“Whereas the Forgery of Bank Notes hath of late very much increased in this Kingdom; and as well for the Prevention thereof, as to facilitate the Detection of the same, the Governor and Company of the Bank of England have, after great Consideration, Labour and Expence, formed a new Plan for printing Bank Notes, in which the Groundwork of each Bank Note will be Black or Coloured, or Black and Coloured Line Work, and the Words “Bank of England” will be placed at the Top of each Bank Note, in White Letters upon a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, such Ground containing White Lines intersecting each other, and the numerical Amount or Sum of each Bank Note in the Body of the Note, will be printed in Black and Red Register Work, and the Back of each Note will distinctly show the whole Contents thereof, except the Number and Date in a reversed Impression: Therefore, for the better Prevention of the Forgery of Bank Notes, and for the Security of the Public; be it enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That from and after the passing of this Act, if any Person or Persons (other than the Officers, Workmen, Servants, and Agents for the Time being of the said Governor and Company, to be authorized and appointed for that Purpose by the said Governor and Company, and for the Use of the said Governor and Company only,) shall engrave, cut, etch, scrape, or by any other Art, Means, or Device make, or shall cause or procure to be engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Device made, or shall knowingly aid or assist in the engraving, cutting, etching, scraping, or by any other Art, Means, or Device, making, in or upon any Plate of Copper, Brass, Steel, Iron, Pewter, or of any other Metal or Mixtures of Metal, or upon Wood or other Materials, or any Plate whatsoever, for the Purpose of producing a Print or Impression of all or any Part or Parts of a Bank Note, or of a Blank Bank Note, of the said Governor and Company, of the Description aforesaid, without an Authority in Writing from the said Governor and Company, or shall use any such Plate so engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Device made, or shall use any other Instrument or Contrivance for the making or printing any such Bank Note or Blank Bank Note, or Part of a Bank Note of the Description aforesaid; or if any Person or Persons shall, from and after the passing of this Act, without such Authority as aforesaid, knowingly and without lawful Excuse, have in his, her, or their Custody any such Plate or Instrument, or without such Authority as aforesaid, shall knowingly or wilfully utter, publish, dispose of, or put away any such Blank Bank Note, or Part of such Bank Note, of the Description aforesaid, every Person so offending in any of the Cases aforesaid, and being thereof convicted according to Law, shall be adjudged a Felon, and shall be transported for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 2. “And whereas divers Frauds have been practised by making and publishing Papers with certain Words and Characters so nearly resembling the Notes of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, as to appear, to ignorant and unwary Persons, to be the Notes of the said Governor and Company; and it is necessary for the Security of the Public, that such Practices, as applied to the Notes of the said Governor and Company of the Description aforesaid, should be prevented; be it therefore further enacted, That if any Person or Persons, from and after the passing of this Act, shall engrave, cut, etch, scrape, or by any other Art, Means, or Device make, or shall cause or procure to be engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Contrivance made, or shall knowingly aid or assist in the engraving, cutting, etching, scraping, or by any other Art, Means, or Contrivance making, in or upon any Plate of Copper, Brass, Steel, Iron, Pewter, or of any other Metal or Mixture of Metals, or upon Wood, or any other Materials, or upon any Plate whatsoever, any Line Work, as or for the Ground Work of a Promissory Note, or Bill of Exchange, the Impression taken from which Line Work shall be intended to resemble the Ground Work of a Bank Note of the said Governor and Company of the Description aforesaid, or any Device, the Impression taken from which shall contain the Words “Bank of England,” in White Letters upon a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, either with or without White or other Lines therein, or shall contain in any Part thereof the numerical Sum or Amount of any Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange in Black and Red Register Work, or shall show the reversed Contents of a Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, or of any Part of a Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, or contain any Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns, which shall be intended to resemble the Whole or any Part of the Matter or Ornaments of any Bank Note of the Description aforesaid, or shall contain any Word, Number, Figure, or Character, in White on a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, either with or without White or other Lines therein, which shall be intended to resemble the numerical Sum or Amount in the Margin, or any other Part of any Bank Note of the said Governor and Company, without an Authority in Writing for that Purpose from the said Governor and Company, to be produced and proved by the Party accused; or if any Person or Persons shall, from and after the passing of this Act, (without such Authority as aforesaid), use any such Plate, Wood, or other Material so engraved, cut, etched, scraped, or by any other Art, Means, or Contrivance made, or shall use any other Instrument or Contrivance for the making or printing upon any Paper or other Material, any Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns, which shall be intended to resemble the Whole or any Part of the Matter or Ornaments of any such Note of the said Governor and Company, of the Description aforesaid, or any Word, Figure, or Character, in White on a Black, Sable, or Dark Ground, either with or without White or other Lines therein, which shall be apparently intended to resemble the numerical Sum or Amount in the Margin, or any other Part of any Bank Note of the said Governor and Company; or if any Person or Persons shall, from and after the passing of this Act, without such Authority as aforesaid, knowingly have in his, her, or their Custody or Possession, any such Plate or Instrument, or shall knowingly and wilfully utter, publish, or dispose of, or put away any Paper, or other Material containing any such Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns, as aforesaid, or shall knowingly or willingly have in his, her or their Custody or Possession, any Paper or other Material containing any such Word or Words, Figure or Figures, Character or Characters, Pattern or Patterns as aforesaid, (without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie upon the Person accused,) every Person so offending in any of the Cases aforesaid, and being convicted thereof according to Law, shall be adjudged a Felon, and shall be transported for the Term of Fourteen Years.”

11 Geo. 4. & 1 Will. 4. c. 66. “An Act for reducing into One Act all such Forgeries as shall henceforth be punished with Death, and for otherwise amending the Laws relative to Forgery.”

s. 13. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall, without the Authority of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, to be proved by the Party accused, make or use, or shall without lawful Excuse, to be proved by the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Frame, Mould, or Instrument for the making of Paper, with the words “Bank of England” visible in the Substance of the Paper, or for the making of Paper with curved or waving Bar Lines, or with the Laying Wire Lines thereof in a waving or curved shape, or with any Number, Sum, or Amount, expressed in a Word or Words in Roman Letters, visible in the Substance of the Paper; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, manufacture, use, sell, expose to sale, utter or dispose of, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper whatsoever with the Words “Bank of England” visible in the Substance of the Paper, or any Paper with curved or waving Bar Lines, or with the Laying Wire Lines thereof in a waving or curved Shape, or with any Number, Sum, or Amount, expressed in a Word or Words in Roman Letters, appearing visible in the Substance of the Paper; or if any Person, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, shall by any Art or Contrivance, cause the Words “Bank of England” to appear visible in the Substance of any Paper, or cause the numerical Sum or Amount of any Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, in a Word or Words in Roman Letters, to appear visible in the Substance of the Paper whereon the same shall be written or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be transported beyond the Seas for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 14. “Provided always, and be it enacted, That nothing herein contained shall prevent any Person from issuing any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note having the Amount thereof expressed in Guineas, or in a numerical Figure or Figures denoting the Amount thereof in Pounds Sterling, appearing visible in the Substance of the Paper upon which the same shall be written or printed, nor shall prevent any Person from making, using, or selling any Paper having waving or curved Lines, or any other Devices in the Nature of Watermarks, visible in the Substance of the Paper, not being Bar Lines, or Laying Wire Lines, provided the same are not so contrived as to form the Ground Work or Texture of the Paper, or to resemble the waving or curved Laying Wire Lines, or Bar Lines, or the Watermarks of the Paper used by the Governor and Company of the Bank of England.

s. 15. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave, or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, or Blank Promissory Note, or Blank Bill of Exchange, or Part of a Promissory Note or Bill of Exchange, purporting to be a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, or Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, or Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without the Authority of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, to be proved by the Party accused; or if any Person shall use such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any other Instrument or Device, for the making or printing any Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, or Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, or Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie on the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any such Instrument or Device; or if any Person shall, without such Authority to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly offer, utter, dispose of, or put off any Paper upon which any Blank Bank Note, Blank Bank Bill of Exchange, or Blank Bank Post Bill, or Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, shall be made or printed; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Paper; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be transported beyond the Seas for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 16. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Word, Number, Figure, Character, or Ornament, the Impression taken from which shall resemble, or apparently be intended to resemble, any Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without the Authority of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England, to be proved by the Party accused; or if any Person shall use any such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any other Instrument or Device, for the making upon any Paper or other Material the Impression of any Word, Number, Figure, Character, or Ornament which shall resemble, or apparently be intended to resemble, any Part of a Bank Note, Bank Bill of Exchange, or Bank Post Bill, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid; or if any Person shall without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie on the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material, or any such Instrument or Device; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly offer, utter, dispose of, or put off any Paper or other Material upon which there shall be an Impression of any such Matter as aforesaid; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper or other Material upon which there shall be an Impression of any such Matter as aforesaid; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be transported beyond the Seas for the Term of Fourteen Years.

s. 17. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall make or use any Frame, Mould or Instrument for the Manufacture of Paper, with the Name or Firm of any Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers (other than and except the Bank of England) appearing visible in the Substance of the Paper, without the Authority of such Person or Persons, Body Corporate or Company, the Proof of which Authority shall lie on the Party accused; or if any Person shall, without lawful Excuse, the Proof whereof shall lie on the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any such Frame, Mould, or Instrument; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, manufacture, use, sell, expose to Sale, utter, or dispose of, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper in the Substance of which the Name or Firm of any such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers shall appear visible; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, cause the Name or Firm of any such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers to appear visible in the Substance of the Paper upon which the same shall be written or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the Discretion of the Court, to be transported beyond the Seas for any Term not exceeding Fourteen Years nor less than Seven Years, or to be imprisoned for any Term not exceeding Three Years nor less than One Year.

s. 18. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note for the Payment of Money, or any Part of any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note for the Payment of Money, purporting to be the Bill or Note, or Part of the Bill or Note, of any Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers (other than and except the Bank of England), without the Authority of such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company, the Proof of which Authority shall lie on the Party accused; or if any Person shall engrave or make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Word or Words, resembling, or apparently intended to resemble, any Subscription subjoined to any Bill of Exchange or Promissory Note for the Payment of Money issued by any such Person or Persons, Body Corporate, or Company carrying on the Business of Bankers, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, use, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved by the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession, any Plate, Wood, Stone, or other Material upon which any such Bill or Note, or Part thereof, or any Word or Words resembling or apparently intended to resemble such Subscription shall be engraved or made; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly offer, utter, dispose of, or put off, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession, any Paper upon which any Part of such Bill or Note, or any Word or Words resembling or apparently intended to resemble any such Subscription, shall be made or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the Discretion of the Court, to be transported beyond the Seas for any Term not exceeding Fourteen Years nor less than Seven Years, or to be imprisoned for any Term not exceeding Three Years nor less than One Year.

s. 19. “And be it enacted, That if any Person shall engrave or in anywise make upon any Plate whatever, or upon any Wood, Stone, or other Material, any Bill of Exchange, Promissory Note, Undertaking, or Order for Payment of Money, or any Part of any Bill of Exchange, Promissory Note, Undertaking, or Order for Payment of Money, in whatever Language or Languages the same may be expressed, and whether the same shall or shall not be or be intended to be under Seal, purporting to be the Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order, or Part of the Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order, of any Foreign Prince or State, or of any Minister or Officer in the Service of any Foreign Prince or State, or of any Body Corporate, or Body of the like Nature, constituted or recognized by any Foreign Prince or State, or of any Person or Company of Persons resident in any Country, not under the Dominion of His Majesty, without the Authority of such Foreign Prince or State, Minister or Officer, Body Corporate, or Body of the like Nature, Person or Company of Persons, the Proof of which Authority shall lie on the Party accused; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, use, or shall without lawful Excuse, to be proved by the Party accused, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession, any Plate, Stone, Wood, or other Material upon which any such Foreign Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order, or any Part thereof, shall be engraved or made; or if any Person shall, without such Authority, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly utter, dispose of, or put off, or shall, without lawful Excuse, to be proved as aforesaid, knowingly have in his Custody or Possession any Paper upon which any Part of such Foreign Bill, Note, Undertaking, or Order shall be made or printed; every such Offender shall be guilty of Felony, and, being convicted thereof, shall be liable, at the Discretion of the Court, to be transported beyond the Seas for any Term not exceeding Fourteen Years, nor less than Seven Years, or to be imprisoned for any Term not exceeding Three Years nor less than One Year.”


form

1. A curved block placed between the endpapers of a book and its covers while the leather is being polished, so as to counteract any warpage which may have occurred due to the dampening of the leather while finishing. 2. Pages of type metal and illustrations, arranged in proper order for the printed sheet and locked in a metal frame called a "chase," ready for printing or for making an electrotype or stereotype.

Diehl, Edith. Bookbinding; its background and technique. New York. Rinehart. 1946. 2 vol.


FORM

The pages when they are imposed and locked up in a chase are called a Form; and this term is applied whether it be one page only or any number that are imposed in one chase.


form

The pages when imposed in a chase.


FORM DANCES

When the lines have not been well justified, or if any thing at the ends prevents them being tight when locked up, so that when the compositor tries if the form will lift, and finds that quadrats, letters, and spaces, or any of them drop down and will not rise, it is said, <i>the Form dances</i>.—M.

This term is more properly applied to a form when, in being lifted from the stone, letters, spaces, or quadrats, will drop lower down than their proper situation, without entirely disengaging themselves from the form; this frequently happens.


FORM IN THE SINK

After a form is laid up, it is frequently left in the sink for a short time to allow the water to drain from it; if another compositor wants to lay up a form before this be removed, he calls out, Form in the Sink! that the person to whom it belongs may take it away.

Form Rises. See Form Lifts.

Form Springs. See Spring of a Form.


FORM LIFTS

After a form is locked up, and when, on being raised a little from the stone, neither letters, spaces, nor any thing else drops out, it is said, <i>the Form lifts</i>.


formaldehyde

A very reactive aldehyde (HCHO), that is a colorless, pungent, irritating, combustible gas when pure, but is conveniently handled in the form of aqueous solutions or solid polymers. It is usually prepared by the oxidation of methanol or gaseous hydrocarbons. It has been used to kill, or inhibit, bookworms, and is used in the manufacture of some leathers, in the treatment of certain dyestuffs to render them fast to washing, and for bleaching archival papers. Its tanning properties stem from its ability to render gelatin insoluble in water. See also: ALDEHYDE TANNING; COMBINATION OIL TANNAGE; FORMALIN.


formaldehyde tanning

A process of converting hides and skins into leather by treatment with FORMALDEHYDE. See: ALDEHYDE TANNING. See also: COMBINATION OIL TANNAGE; FORMALIN.

O'Flaherty, Fred, and others, eds. The chemistry and technology of leather. New York. Reinhold. (American Chemical Society monograph series, no. 134. 1956-65. 4 vol.


formalin

A solution of FORMALDEHYDE gas in water. A solution of 40% formalin in water, which may also contain traces of formic acid, methyl alcohol, or a white deposit of paraldehyde, is used in tanning some leathers. See also: ALDEHYDE TANNING.

Sharphouse, John Henry. The leatherworker's handbook. London. Leather Producers' Association. 1963.


format

1. The number of times a printed sheet has been folded to form the leaves of a section, e.g., folio (folded once to make two leaves or four pages); quarto (folded twice to make four leaves or eight pages), etc. In a broader sense, format is the general proportions and approximate size of a book or other publication which would result from such folding. See also: FOLDINGS. 2. In a very loose sense, the general appearance and make-up of a book, including proportions, size, quality, and style of paper and binding, typography, illustrations, and so on. See also: DUMMY (1).

Harrod, Leonard Montague. The librarians' glossary of terms used in librarianship and the book crafts, and reference book. 3rd ed. London. Deutsch. 1971.

Melcher, Daniel, and Nancy Larrick. Printing and promotion handbook …3rd ed. New York. McGraw-Hill. 1966.


formation

The distribution of the solid components of a sheet of paper, with special reference to the fibers. It is usually judged by the visual appearance of the sheet when viewed by transmitted light. Formation affects not only look-through appearance but uniformity in several respects, including, finish, subsequent coatings, ink receptivity, and compressibility under printing impression.

The selection of paper pulps and their subsequent refining influence formation to a great extent. Short fibers will form better than long ones, while long fibers, which give strength in terms of folding endurance and tear resistance, when used in preponderance, tend to give a cloudy or bunchy look to the formation of the sheet. Loading or fillers improve formation, permitting closer packing and greater density in the sheet, thus improving both levelness and LOOK-THROUGH. There are limits, however, to the amount of loading than can be used, as it weakens the paper because it is dead weight and contributes no strength on its own.

American Paper and Pulp Association. The dictionary of paper, including pulp, paperboard, paper properties and related papermaking terms. 3rd ed. New York. American Paper and Pulp Association. 1965.

Casey, James P. Pulp and pa per: chemistry and chemical technology. 2nd ed. New York. Interscience. 1960-61. 3 vol.

Grant, Julius. Books & documents; dating, permanence and preservation. London. Grafton. 1937.


formic acid

A colorless, volatile, weak organic acid (H2CO2). It occurs naturally, e.g., in ants, the fruit of the soaptree, etc., and is also formed as a byproduct in the atmospheric oxidation of turpentine. The principal commercial source is sodium formate, which is prepared by the reaction of carbon monoxide and sodium hydroxide under pressure and heat. Formic acid is used in leather manufacture to control pH, as well as in the acid dyeing of some leathers; in the latter case, causing the dye to fix on the leather.


forming iron

See: BACK-MOLDING IRON.


FORMULÆ, CHEMICAL,

are symbols representing the different substances, simple and compound.

For the convenience of those who have occasion to refer to a compound substance containing two atoms of base, (as, for instance, antimonious acid in respect to its carbon,) the weight of two atoms of the base is given after the weight of the single atom.

Berzelius’s Symbols of all the Elementary Substances.

Degrees of Oxidation are indicated by Dots placed over the Symbol.

Table of the principal Groups of the Isomorphous Substances at present observed by Chemists.

Professor Whewell in an Essay on the Employment of Notation in Chemistry, observes, “I have no hesitation in saying, that in mineralogy it is utterly impossible to express clearly, or to reason upon, the chemical constitution of our substances, without the employment of some notation or other. Every one who makes the trial will find that, without a notation, his attempts to compare the composition of different minerals will be confused and fruitless, and that, by employing symbols, his reasonings may easily be made brief, clear, and systematic.”

After criticising the foreign notation as being grossly anomalous and defective, he adds the following list, which he hopes he has shown to be mathematically consistent and chemically useful. He has used the atomic composition adopted by Dr. Turner in his Chemistry.

Berzelius represents water (aqua) by Aq; for the sake of simplicity Whewell says he has used q. He also observes, “In the notation of Berzelius, the atoms of oxygen are indicated by dots placed over the symbol of the base. Thus, [..]fe, [...]fe are the protoxide and peroxide of iron, which he considers as having two and three atoms of oxygen respectively. This notation is compact and simple, but it is not consistent with algebraical rule, so far as the oxygen is concerned; and I conceive that, if this element be explicitly expressed, it ought to be done in the manner I have recommended, fe + 2 o, fe + 3 o, &c.”—Journals of Royal Institution.

I have omitted Professor Whewell’s reasons, which he gives to show the superiority of his notation over those of foreign nations and that of Berzelius, as they are not of practical utility in printing; but I have given his list, which will be useful in printing mineralogical works in cases where the copy may be bad.


forril

See: FOREL.


fortified size

A rosin acid chemically modified for use in lieu of, or together with, rosin size in improving the water resistance of paper. Most fortified sizes are reaction products of rosin with maleic anhydride.


forty-eightmo

A section consisting of 48 leaves (96 pages). In bookwork, using right angle folds, it is formed by folding a full sheet five times to form 32 leaves, and a half sheet four times to form 16 leaves, and insetting the latter. Its symbol is 48mo, or 48°. Also called "quadrigesimo-octavo." See also: BOOK SIZES.


FORTY-EIGHTMO

A sheet of paper folded into forty-eight leaves, or ninety-six pages.


FORTYMO

A sheet of paper folded into forty leaves, or eighty pages.


forwarding

The processes or steps involved in binding a book. It has been variously defined as: 1) all of the binding processes following gathering, including covering; 2) the processes following sewing and up to covering; and 3) the processes following sewing and including covering. In edition binding, the term SHEETWORK is usually used in lieu of forwarding.

Cockerell, Douglas. Bookbinding, and the care of books; a textbook for bookbinders and librarians. 5th ed. London. Pitman. 1971.

Dunn and Wilson Group. The art and craft of bookbinding. Falkirk. Dunn & Wilson. 1968.


forwarding

Is that branch that takes the books after they are sewed and advances them until they are put in leather ready for the finisher. One who works at this branch is termed a forwarder.


forwarding

Comprises all the operations between preparing and finishing, including the forming and trimming of the books, and the covering of the boards.


forwarding

The branch that takes the books after they are sewed, and advances them until they are put into leather ready for the finisher. The one who works at this branch is called a forwarder.


forwarding

comprises all the operations between sewing and finishing, excepting headbanding.


forwarding

All processes through which a book passes after sewing, other than those of ornamentation by means of tools or rolls. Also that department which takes books after they are sewed and advances them until they are put in leather ready for the finisher. One who works at this branch is termed a forwarder.


forwarding machine

The name some times given a ROUNDING AND BACKING MACHINE.


forwarding press

See: FINISHING PRESS.


fossil resins

See: RESIN.


FOUL PROOF

When a proof has many faults marked in it.—M. Pressmen are also in the habit of calling the first proof a <i>Foul Proof</i>; and frequently they pull it so as to justify the epithet.


FOUL PROOF

A proof with many faults marked in it.


FOUL STONE

After imposing or correcting, if a compositor leave any thing upon the imposing stone, except the mallet, shooting stick, and planer, it is termed a foul stone; which in many houses subjects him to a fine.


Foundation-Plate

A plate of iron or brass upon which side-stamps are affixed.


Fount

A complete assortment of type, of the same nick, body, and face, put up by type-founders in accordance with an ascertained ratio.


FOUNT CASES

Cases of larger proportions than those used to compose from, which are kept to contain the surplus sorts of a fount until they are required for use. In these cases they are more accessible than when put into coffins and baskets according to the old plan, and are not so likely to be mislaid.


FOUNT,

is the whole number of letters that are cast of the same body and face at one time.—M. Moxon says this word is properly Fund.


Fountain

Reservoir for ink, attached to printing-presses.


Fourdrinier machine

A papermaking machine invented by the Frenchman, Nicolas Louis Robert in 1798, developed in England by Brian Donkin for Henry and Sealy Fourdrinier, but not placed into operation until 1804.

The Fourdrinier machine and the CYLINDER MACHINE comprise the machines normally employed in the manufacture of all grades of paper and board. The Fourdrinier machine may be considered in four sections: wet end, press section, drier section, and calender section. (The supercalender is not a part of the papermaking machine, and, in fact, not all Fourdriniers have a calender section.) In the wet end, the pulp or stock, at a consistency or concentration of 0.2 to 1.0%, depending upon the grade and weight of the paper being manufactured, flows from a headbox through a slice onto a moving endless belt of wire cloth, the FOURDRINIER WIRE.

The wire runs over a breast roll, which is under or adjacent to the headbox, over a series of tubes or table rolls (or, more recently, drainage blades) which maintain the working surface of the wire in a plane and aid in water removal. The tubes or rolls create a vacuum on the downstream side of the NIP.

Similarly, the drainage blades create a vacuum on the downstream side where the wire leaves the blade surface, but also perform the function of a doctor blade on the upstream side. The wire then passes over a series of suction boxes, over the bottom couch roll (or suction couch roll), which drives the wire, and then down and back over various guide rolls and a stretch roll to the breast roll.

The press section usually consists of two or more presses, whose function is to remove still more water from the web mechanically and to equalize the surface characteristics of the felt and wire sides. The wet web of paper is transferred from the wire to the felt at the couch roll, and is carried through the presses on the felts, the texture and character of which vary according to the grade of paper being made.

The drier section consists of two or more tiers of driers, which are steam-heated cylinders. The web is held firmly against them by means of fabric drier felts. As the web passes from one drier to another, first the felt side and then the wire side are pressed against the heated surface of the drier. The web enters the drier train having a water content of approximately 65%, the bulk of which is evaporated in this section. Moisture removal may be further assisted by hot air blowing onto the sheets and in between the driers to effect removal of water vapor. Within the drier section and at a point at least half way along the drying curve, there is sometimes a breaker stack for use in imparting finish, as well as to facilitate drying. The stack generally consists of a pair of chilled iron and/or rubber-surfaced rolls. There may also be a size press located within the drier section, at a point where the moisture content of the paper has been reduced to approximately 5%.

The calendar section consists of from one to three calender stacks with a reel device for winding the paper onto a reel as it leaves the machine. The calender finishes the paper, i.e., smooths it and imparts the desired finish, thickness, or gloss. Water, starch, wax emulsions, etc., may also be used to obtain additional finishes. The reel winds the finished paper, which may or may not undergo further processing.

The wire, press section, drier section or sections, the calender stacks, and the reel are so driven that proper tension is maintained in the web of paper despite its elongation or shrinkage during passage through the machine. The overall speed of Fourdrinier machines is determined by the grade and weight of the paper being manufactured.

British Paper and Board Makers' Association. Paper making; a general account of its history, processes and applications. Rev. ed. London. British Paper and Board Makers' Association. 1965.

Britt, Kenneth W., ed. Handbook of pulp and paper technology. 2nd ed. New York. Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1970.

Clapperton, Robert Henderson. The paper-making machine; its invention, evolution and development. New York. Pergamon Press. 1967.

Crown Zellerbach Corp. Making pulp and paper. San Francisco. Crown Zellerbach Corp. 1958. 1 vol.

Glaister, Geoffrey Ashall. An encyclopedia of the book. Cleveland. World. 1960.


Fourdrinier wire

An endless belt of woven wire used on the wet end of the FOURDRINIER MACHINE, and on which the web of paper is initially formed. The warp wire is generally of phosphor bronze and the shute (weft) wire of brass. In recent years, other metals and nonmetallic materials have been used. The number of warp wires per inch and the number of shute wires determine the mesh of the wire, the warp count varying from 8 to 225, the most common being 55, 60, 70, and 75.

Calkin, John Burgess. Modern pulp and paper making. 3rd ed. New York. Reinhold. 1957.


foxing

Stains, specks, spots and blotches in paper. The cause or causes of foxing, which usually occurs in machine-made paper of the late 18th and the 19th centuries, are not completely understood, but in all likelihood, it is fungoid in nature. Fungi, however, are not necessarily visible on foxed areas, nor does prolific growth necessarily imply excessive discoloration, and vice versa. This has been attributed partly to the fact that action may have been initiated before the examination of the paper, and partly, but less convincingly, to the so-called, action at a distance, which enables an agent to exert its effect at some distance from the object acted upon.

Two significant differences between foxed and clean areas of a paper are the higher proportion of acid and iron in the former, although there does not seem to be any clear and definitive relationship between iron and foxing. Insofar as the acid is involved, it is not clear whether this is produced chemically or as a byproduct of the life function of the organisms present. Iron is attributed to impurities present in the paper, and this conclusion seems to be based largely on the fact that it is seldom found in papers produced before the introduction of papermaking equipment made of iron, e.g., the beater, and improvements in techniques, including bleaching and other forms of chemical treatment. But what role iron has in accelerating foxing, or causing a change from the invisible to visible state, has yet to be demonstrated.

The other factor which controls foxing is relative humidity (R.H.), since these fungi will not develop if the R.H. falls below 75%. The fact that foxing generally starts from the edge of the leaf and spreads inward would seem to indicate that something in the atmosphere is relevant, although air borne organisms may be adequate as an explanation for this effect. In addition, it must still be explained how the center of the leaf is affected most in occasional instances. Perhaps the most logical explanation is that infection by air borne organisms (or by organisms that are natural to the paper) may occur if the conditions, and especially the R.H., are favorable, and that growth, resulting in the generation of fox marks, then occurs. The acid subsequently renders any iron in the paper soluble and therefore visible, with its color being intensified by the presence of organic matter.

The effects of foxing may be reduced to a reasonable extent by use of a reducing agent, such as sodium borohydride (NaBH4) in a 0.5% solution by weight of the paper. This chemical has the advantage of not having to be washed out of the paper (and even depositing a small alkaline reserve—sodium tetraborate (Na2B4O7)—in the paper). Foxing may be counteracted to an even greater extent by the use of a 0.1% (by weight of the paper) solution of an oxidizing agent such as calcium hypochlorite (Ca(ClO)2); however, this chemical is very difficult to wash out after treatment. Unaffected papers may be successfully protected from foxing by maintaining the R.H. of the storage area below 50%. See also: DENDRITIC GROWTHS.

Beckwith, Theodore Day, and others. Deterioration of paper; the cause and effects of foxing. Berkeley, Calif. University of California Press. 1940.

Cunha, George Daniel Martin. Conservation of library materials. Metuchen, N.J. Scarecrow. 1967.

Lydenherg, Harry Miller, and John Archer. The care and repair of books. 4th ed. New York. Bowker. 1960.


FRACTIONS

A fraction is part of a unit, and is written with two figures, one above the other, with a line between them: thus, ¼, ⅚, ⅜. The upper figure is called the numerator, and the lower figure the denominator. The denominator shows how many parts the unit is divided into; and the numerator, how many of those parts the fraction represents. A proper fraction is when the numerator is less than the denominator. An improper fraction is when the numerator is equal to, or greater than the denominator.

A compound fraction is the fraction of a fraction, and is known by the word, of, between the parts; as, ½ of ⅔ of 7/9 of 8/17. A mixed number is composed of a whole number and fraction; as, 83/7, 17½. A mixed fraction is when the numerator or denominator has a fractional part; thus, 7⅔/4, 4/7⅔; or, when both of them have fractional parts; as 5⅓/7⅕.

The fractions cast in one piece to a fount are ⅛, ¼, ⅜, ½, ⅝, ¾, ⅞.

Fractions are also cast in two pieces, from Brevier to English; when wanted larger, they may be formed of figures of small proportionate size, with a rule between the numerator and denominator.

This rule in separate fractions is now generally cast on the piece containing the denominator, above the figure, thus, 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0; but in improper fractions, where the numerator contains more figures than the denominator, as  3848 21 , this rule will not cover the whole of the numerator, therefore it would be necessary, to be able to compose fractions in a perfect manner, to have the rule also cast under the numerator, according to the old plan, so as to meet both cases, otherwise either the proper fraction or the improper fraction must be deficient  21 3848 .


FRAGMENTS

After the body of a work, and the index are composed, the title, preface, contents, &c. are proceeded with. If there be any pages beyond the concluding sheet, they are now imposed together to save presswork, and also warehouse work; and these pages are called <i>Fragments</i>.


frame

1. Ornamentation of a binding consisting of a simple hollow rectangle placed some distance from the edges of the cover of a book. It is to be distinguished from a BORDER (1). 2. Complete borders which are not, however, compartments, and which comprise enclosures made up of separate cuts or ornaments which show no evidence of having been carved or engraved for use together as a border, and also those made up of separate cast-type ornaments, commonly used in book decoration.

American Library Association. Editorial Committee. Subcommittee on library terminology. A. L. A. glossary of library terms, with a selection of terms in related fields. Compiled by Elizabeth H. Thompson. Chicago. American Library Association. 1943.

Carter, John. A B C for book collectors. 5th ed. London. Hart Davis. 1972.


FRAME

Made of deal wood, on which the cases are placed to be composed from.

By the annexed engraving it will be perceived, that the upper and lower cases are placed upon the frame, not in a horizontal, but sloping position, as two inclined planes, the upper case being at a greater angle than the lower, which brings the more distant boxes nearer to the compositor and thus expedites the work: this arrangement occupies less room, and allows a greater number of frames to stand in a given length.

The cases rest on a rail at each end, and in the middle there are generally two rails, six or seven inches apart, for the inside end of each case to rest on. There is frequently a piece of board nailed to the bottom of these rails, which thus forms a depository for page cords, copy that is not in use, and other small matters: this is called a Well.

Frames are always placed with one end next the window, so that the compositor when at work may stand with his left hand to the light; thus he enjoys the full benefit of the light in picking up the letters with his right hand. They are usually made to contain two cases in length, which are generally a pair of Roman and a pair of Italic cases, so that the compositor has not to go out of his frame when he wants to compose a few words in Italic.

There is a rather strong nail driven into each end rail and each middle rail for the bottom of the upper cases to rest upon, leaving sufficient room for the lower cases to be lifted out when necessary.

The dimensions of a frame are—height of back, 4 feet 6 inches; height of front, 3 feet 6 inches; width, 1 foot 10 inches; length, 4 feet 10 inches.

In a composing room, where there was plenty of room, I have seen the frames made to contain three cases in length; this is a convenience, as it allows the compositor to have up an additional pair of cases for his notes.

Frame to hold cases

William Savage, A Dictionary of the Art of Printing, 1841


franklin guard

See: PHILADELPHIA PATENT-BACK GUARD.


free endpaper

See: FLY LEAF. See also: ENDPAPERS.


free water-soluble matter (in leather)

Soluble matter that can be removed from finely ground leather with very little washing. The free water solubles include gallic acid, quinol, catechol, etc. See also: COMBINED TANNIN IN LEATHER; COMBINED WATER-SOLUBLE MATTER (IN LEATHER).

Wilson, John Arthur. Modern practice in leather 367. manufacture. New York. Reinhold. 1941.


freezing point

The temperature at which the liquid and solid states of a substance are in equilibrium at atmospheric pressure. All adhesives used in archival work are affected by the freezing point, i.e., of water (32 F. or 0° C.). See also: GLASS TRANSITION TEMPERATURE.


French cape levant

A type of MOROCCO prepared from the skin of a large Cape (South African) goat. It has a LEVANT grain, which is larger than the small pin-head grain of the usual morocco.


French chalk

Soft, finely powdered magnesium silicate (MgH2(SiO3)4), which is dusted between the leaves of a book prior to gilding the edges so as to prevent the leaves from sticking during the gilding process, and also to remove grease stains from paper.

Harrison, T. The bookbinding craft and industry; an outline of its history, development, and technique. London. Pitman. 1926.


French color

The third (or body) color dropped on the marbling size following the dropping of the VEIN COLORS.

Loring, Rosamond Bowditch. Decorated book papers…1st ed. 1942; 2nd ed. 1952. Cambridge, Mass. Harvard University Press.


French corner

A method of reinforcing the corners of a book cover with leather or cloth, which is subsequently covered on the outside of the board but can just be seen at the corner on the inside of the board.

Clough, Eric A. Bookbinding for librarians. London. Association of Assistant Librarians. 1957.


French curl marble

A marble pattern that has been used for endpapers, particularly in France, since about 1660. The pattern is made on a marbling size of GUM TRAGACANTH, and the colors are dropped on in the same manner as with the NONPAREIL MARBLE.

The curls are made with the use of a wooden frame constructed in the form of a small harrow, each parallel bar being set with as many tapering wooden pegs as there are curls required on the sheet to be marbled. The difficulty in executing this pattern is to "catch" the curls before they lose their shape.

Many fine armorial bindings have the large red and blue pattern as linings. Padeloup and Derome both used this pattern for endpapers in books they bound for the French nobility. The French curl pattern remained popular, and continued to be used in Europe and England until about 1870. While it was highly valued for endpapers, it was rarely, if ever, used for cover papers on 17th and 18th century books.

Crane, W. J. E. Bookbinding for amateurs…New York. Scribner. 1903.


French fillet

A FILLET (1) having three unevenly spaced bands on its circumference.


French finish

Books sewn on raised bands and completely undecorated except for gilt lettering. See also: FRENCH KID.

Porte, Roy Trewin. Dictionary of printing terms. 4th ed. Salt Lake City. Porte. 1941.


French fold

A sheet of paper printed on one side only and folded over from left and right to form a "section" with uncut bolts. The inside of the fold is blank.

Watson Aldred Auld. Hand bookbinding a manual of instruction. New York. Reinhold. 1963.


French gold

An alloyed GOLD LEAF, on the light or lemon-colored side.

Ede, Charles. The art of the book…New York. Studio. 1951.


French guard

A term sometimes applied to the inner margin of an insert, turned over and folded around a section.

Bailey, Arthur Low. Library bookbinding. New York. Wilson. 1916.


French guard

Made by turning over half an inch or more of the back edge of a printed sheet or illustration and then folding it around the next signature.


French joint

See illustration</> A free-swinging joint produced by setting the board a slight distance (approximately 1/8 to 1/4 inch, depending on the size of the book) away from the backing shoulder. This type of joint allows thicker covering material to be used, while still allowing the covers to open easily. The French joint is one of the more notable characteristics of library binding. Also called "open joint." See also: CLOSED JOINT

Coutts, Henry T., and George A. Stephen. Manual of library bookbinding; practical and historical. London. Libraco. 1911.

Town, Laurence. Bookbinding by hand, for students and craftsmen. New York. Pitman. 1950 (1951).


French joint

A joint in which the board is not brought close up to the back, thus giving more play in opening.


French kid

A kidskin produced by either tawing or a vegetable tannage. As the name implies, it was produced originally in France and, because of its distinctive finish, the term was later applied to the same kind of leather produced elsewhere.

Tanners' Council of America, Inc. Dictionary of leather terminology. 6th ed. New York. Tanners' Council of America. 1969.


French morocco

A leather similar in appearance to MOROCCO but produced from sheepskin. The term is both inaccurate and misleading.

Pleger, John J. Bookbinding. Rev. ed. Chicago. Inland Printer. 1924.


French morocco

An inferior quality of levant morocco, having usually a smaller and less prominent grain.


French paring knife

See: PARING KNIFE.


FRENCH RULES

Pieces of Brass, letter high, of different lengths and thicknesses, on which are filed various dashes, swelling in the middle. They are used to separate parts of a discourse; or are placed after certain lines of capitals in titles and jobs, &c. They are also called Swell Rules.

French Words and Phrases. See Phrases.


French sewing

A method of sewing a book adapted by French bookbinders in the 16th century, which is essentially the same as the sewing employed in COPTIC BINDINGS.

Unlike the traditional Western method of sewing on raised cords (See: FLEXIBLE SEWING), each section was sewn through the fold and attached to the next section by a loop similar to a KETTLE STITCH.

Cords were not employed. The first and last sections were then laced tightly to the boards. In modern usage, French sewing is the same technique as done by a sewing machine, without the attachment of the boards. Modern French sewing is the principal method employed in edition binding. See also: MACHINE SEWING.

Comparato, Frank E. Books for the millions; a history of the men whose methods and machines packaged the printed word. Harrisburg, Pa. Stackpole. 1971.