ROLLER

A cylinder coated with composition, fixed in an iron frame, and revolving upon an iron rod running through it, with which to ink the forms, preparatory to taking an impression.

The roller has almost entirely superseded the use of balls in printing; and, since the introduction of composition, I may venture to say it has completely superseded the use of pelts for balls. See Pelts.

The use of the roller is less laborious to the pressman than balls; and for common work, and indeed all work where weak ink is used, it coats the surface of the types, &c. more uniformly, perhaps, than balls; but for fine work, where strong ink must be used, and really fine work cannot be produced without strong ink, the roller is decidedly inferior to the ball, partly owing to the difficulty of taking ink and distributing it on the inking table; and partly owing to the inferiority of rolling to beating with balls, in coating the surface of the types with strong ink.

The introduction of composition in lieu of pelts has been the cause of a complete change in printing; but for this article, machine or cylindrical printing would never have been accomplished, as all the first attempts were made with skins to coat the roller, and all failed, owing to the imperfection of joining the edges; it was this that baffled Nicholson, who died before its introduction; and it was the introduction of this article that enabled König to avail himself of Nicholson’s invention and to reduce it to practice, after he had failed in his project of applying steam to the working of presses.

The composition was first introduced in printing by Mr. B. Foster, who spread it in a melted state on canvass, and then formed it into balls in the usual manner. I have been informed that Mr. Foster obtained his knowledge of its properties from a cotton manufactory, where it was used in some part of the machinery; but Mr. T. C. Hansard says that it was in the Staffordshire potteries, in which they use what are there called dabbers, that Mr. Foster first observed it.

Composition.—Mr. Hansard, a printer of extensive practice, in his Typographia, says, “The composition consists principally of glue and molasses, or treacle. I have seen various receipts of ingredients and proportions, some possessing the recommendations which distinguish the recipes of ancient physicians; namely, a vast variety of articles with counteracting properties. But the simple prescription which my experience has proved best, is, to provide glue of the finest quality, made from the cuttings of parchment or vellum; fine green molasses, pure from the sugar refiner, at least not adulterated for the bakers’ or grocers’ shops; and a small quantity of the substance called Paris-white [carbonate of barytes], and you will have every ingredient requisite for the compo. The proportions have been so variously stated, and so different from what I have found to be eligible, that I am wholly at a loss to account for such differences.

and about half a pound of the Paris-white, will make the compo of a superior quality to any other proportions, and will be sufficient for two demy rollers. The great disparity which appears in these receipts may perhaps be attributed to a difference in the quality of the materials, and to the mode of management.” Thus far Mr. Hansard on the component parts of the composition.

The late Mr. Robert Branston, an eminent engraver on wood, and who was also very skilful in printing his productions in a superior manner, told me that he made his balls of glue, treacle, and a little shoemakers wax, and that they answered as well as Foster’s. The Cave of Despair, in my Practical Hints on Decorative Printing, will serve as a specimen of his abilities in both these departments.

An ingenious printer in the country, and a good workman, sent me the following receipt, from which he used to make balls for his own use:—Take a pound and a half of glue, let it soak in cold water twelve hours, boil it without any additional water; when it is hot add half a pound of treacle, half an ounce of turpentine, and a quarter of a pound of tar; this quantity is sufficient for a pair of balls. Prepare your canvass or coarse cloth of the size the balls are wanted, by rubbing on it bees wax, (or common paste will answer the purpose after it has been allowed to dry,) to prevent the composition running through the pores; when the mixture is nearly cold, pour it on the canvass, held in a concave manner, in order that it may be the thickest in the middle, and thinner at the edges; then knock up the balls in the usual way.

Another receipt, from which a large establishment in London made their balls and rollers, and the latter both for their machines and presses, is equal parts of glue and treacle; but as the composition is affected by the state of the atmosphere, it is found by experience that in cold weather a greater proportion of treacle is required, and in warm weather a greater proportion of glue.

This establishment was of opinion that the glue known by the name of London Glue is the strongest and best.

These different receipts, each of which was held in high estimation by the party who made use of it on account of its individual superiority over others, tend to show that different proportions of the same materials with different ingredients incorporated with the mixture, produce a composition that possesses all the requisite qualities.

Casting Rollers.—Mr. Hansard gives the following directions:—“The cylinder upon which the compo is cast is made of alder-wood, turned to a requisite diameter, so that the coat of compo which it receives is half an inch. The cylinder is perforated through its centre, having a brass bush or collar driven into each end, through which is passed an iron rod, as an axis, with an enlarged head at one end, and tapped with a screw at the other.

“It is necessary to procure a mould very accurately made and well finished. Mine is made of brass, in two parts, adjusted to each other with rebates, the inside being finely turned and polished, and having flanches projecting by which the parts are screwed together by the screw and lock-burr. To each end is also fitted a collar; and a circular plate of iron is accommodated with great precision to the bore of the mould, having a projection in its centre to enter a cylinder of wood about which the compo is to attach itself, and to hold it exactly in the centre of the mould, and the other end of which is kept in a corresponding position by means of a brass piece to allow of the compo passing down between the interior surface of the mould and the wooden cylinder. There are little projections on the sides of the mould, which serve as feet to support each half in a steady position while lying upon a table or elsewhere. Previous to joining, the parts of the mould must be nicely cleaned and oiled, and the greatest care taken that no particle of compo, grit, or dirt, remain in the rebate. The parts being carefully placed on each other, and the wooden cylinder fixed inside, the screws must be put into their respective places in the flanches, and when all is properly made tight the mould is to be set upright for receiving the compo.

“The next material part of the apparatus is the melting kettle. This must be a double vessel like a glue-kettle, so that the compo in the interior may be melted by the heat of the boiling water in the exterior. For this purpose a strong boiler may be the best or readiest thing found, into which let a tin vessel be fitted, with a flanch to rest on the rim, so as to leave one or two inches clear under it. This vessel may be six or eight inches above the top of the boiler, so that the lid of the one may fit the other; and it must have a handle on each side; also a large lip for pouring out the compo.

“Being thus prepared, put the glue into a little water for a few hours to soak. Pour off all the liquid, and put the glue into the inner vessel, the boiler having in it as much water as it will contain when the inner vessel is in its place. Put it on the fire, and boil the water as quick as you please, the heat of which will soon cause the glue to dissolve, and evaporate part of the water. When the glue is all melted, add the molasses, and let them be well incorporated together for at least an hour, receiving heat from the boiling water, which is an uniform degree that cannot exceed 212° of Fahrenheit. Then with a very fine sieve, mix the white powder, frequently stirring the compo. In another hour, or less, it will be fit to pour off; and when it is, take the inner vessel out of the boiler, and pour the mixture gently into the mould through the opened brass keeper. In about an hour, if the weather be dry and favourable you may take the roller out of the mould; hang it in a cool, dry, situation, or lay it horizontally in a rack made for the purpose, and the next day it will be sufficiently hardened for use. As there will be rather more of the compo at each end of the cylinder than would work clear of the frame in which it is to revolve, cut off from each extremity about half an inch, by encircling it with a piece of fine twine.”

There is a serious practical disadvantage in the mould being formed of two pieces; that of having a seam or ridge running the whole length on both sides of the roller. This seam prevents that accurate distribution of the ink which is essentially necessary, and increases the probability and danger of producing monks in the impression, which ought to be avoided as much as possible, as destructive to good printing.

I have at different times heard complaints of the difficulty of drawing the roller out of the mould, and of the injury it frequently receives from the surface being damaged, which spoils it, and makes it necessary to be recast. This accident occasions disappointment and loss of time; as cleaning the mould from the composition which adheres to it when this happens is tedious. I attribute this to the mould being made too thin, which expands when the hot mixture is poured into it, and contracts as the mixture cools, thus becoming, by the contraction, too small for the roller, and binding it so tight as to prevent its being drawn out with facility, and without great risk of injury.

I know one house in the Metropolis that makes rollers in the most perfect manner, and experiences little or no trouble in drawing them from the mould; and I know a person who had a mould made, with the same result. These moulds were made out of a solid cylinder of metal (tin, or type metal is equally good for the purpose, and more durable), the aperture bored to the size of the required roller, and carefully polished on the inside, the tube being thick, in some instances two inches, so that it was not much affected by the heat of the composition, the expansion being very trifling, and of course the contraction small in proportion; so that the roller when cold was not compressed by the mould, or so slightly as not to cause any inconvenience or damage to it in drawing out. The inside of the mould should be carefully wiped out before using, so as to be perfectly free from dust or dirt, and slightly oiled, which causes the roller to quit it more readily.

Preservation.—Mr. Hansard says, “To keep the rollers in good condition for working, a place should be chosen where the air has free circulation, without being subject to the extreme heat of the sun in Summer, or the freezing damp air in winter; in short, in as even a temperature as possible. It will be necessary to keep a stock of more rollers than are at work; as it is frequently found, when a roller is sick, or greasy, or soft, or you do not know what is its ailment, that washing it clean, and hanging it to rest for a time, restores it to as good a state as ever.

“One other circumstance must be noticed, namely, the influence of the variable temperatures of different situations on this composition. This I have had particular opportunities of knowing, from having carried on business in two distant offices. It frequently happened that when the compo was working kindly at one office, nothing could be more teazing than its progress at the other. Indeed, while I was supplied by those who make for the trade, one of my houses frequently gave them a great deal of trouble. I have heard both Foster and Harrild say, ‘that they were obliged to make a harder compo on purpose for my house and one or two others similarly situated, than the customary temper of the mixture:’ and, frequently, the only alternative was, to find me a roller that had got hard and useless at some other house, to suit the low temperature of mine. The difference was this—one of my houses had the press-room on the ground-floor, the joists and flooring lying on the earth; the sink room adjoining; wet sheets hanging very low; very little influence from the sun, and no thorough ventilation; consequently, from the humidity of the atmosphere engendered by these circumstances, it was a constant complaint that the compo was too soft. At my other house the press-room was on the two-pair floor; the poles very high; the sun’s rays had free admittance, and the ventilation was very complete. Here the compo, complained of as too soft at the former house, was all that could be wished: hence it became the roller-nursery; and by sending them to hang up a day or two, when out of order at the other place, they became firm and fit for work.”

From this statement it appears that any fixed proportions of the materials for the composition cannot answer generally, and that they must vary according to circumstances. And it may cause us to cease wondering at the number of recipes, and of the different proportions of the various articles, and at being told that they all answered very well; for it is evidently owing to the situation, whether moist or dry, of the press-room of a printing office, that different proportions of ingredients are requisite to make a roller work well, under different circumstances.

The usual method of keeping rollers in working condition is to cover them at night, and when they are not likely to be wanted for some time, with a coating of common or refuse ink; this does not dry, and prevents evaporation, and thus keeps them in working condition: the ink must be scraped off when they are required for use. A roller will get foul in the course of working, or become too hard, it should then be washed well with lye and the lye brush, which will remove the foulness, and it may be further washed with clean water and the hand to remove the lye, and to give it a clean surface; it would then be necessary to distribute it well on a clean table. It would be now advisable to proceed with the presswork with a fresh roller, and allow the one that was washed to have a rest, which generally improves its working condition. If a roller become too hard, and the surface is clean, then washing it with clean water and the hand, distributing it on a clean table, and placing it in a damp situation, will restore it; in fact, when the press-room is dry and well ventilated, keeping the rollers in a damp situation when not in use is preferable, in my opinion, to softening them with water, as the moisture is gradually imbibed by the composition, and makes it more uniformly soft and kind.

When rollers get too soft, the general practice is to hang them up in a current of cool dry air, which evaporates the superabundant moisture, cools the composition if the room has been too warm, and brings them to a good working state. But a more expeditious and effective method, is to sponge them with spirit of turpentine, which restores them to a proper condition sooner than any other method, and also cleans them more effectually than lye. If the same rollers are required to be used when it is necessary to change the colour of the ink, there is not any article that will clean them so expeditiously, and take the ink which had been used out of them so completely, as spirit of turpentine.

Occasionally the pressman finds that he cannot produce good and clear impressions with all the care and attention that he can bestow upon his work, and this when his roller seems to be in good condition, and no apparent cause can be assigned for the deficiency of quality; the roller is then said to be sick, or tired; and the only remedy that has yet answered to remove this inconvenience is to give the roller rest; that is, to hang it up, and take another roller for the work in hand; after resting for some time, it will be found that the sick or tired roller has resumed its original qualities, and will again produce good work.

Rollers, when not in use, should always be hung up in a shady place, which is generally done by one end of the frame, for if left on the inking table they would stick to it, and the composition would be torn in the act of separation; neither should they be exposed to the action of the rays of the sun in summer, which will soften the composition so much as to cause it to run, and thus spoil the roller. These observations apply equally to composition balls.

The following is an abstract of the French method of making and treating rollers.

The French roller-makers proportions are eight pounds of glue and twelve pounds of treacle, which is sufficient for four rollers used at press; the quantity required for those used at machines will vary according to their length and diameter.

Paris made glue is the best: it ought to be transparent, have little colour, and break like glass. Flexibility in glue is a proof of its weakness; and it is injured by being left in a damp place.

The treacle ought to be pure; the most compact is the best. To avoid being deceived, it is best to buy the refined. The old is weak, and not of a good quality for rollers.

In preparing to make four rollers, two pounds of good glue must be soaked in river water; the strength of the glue must determine how long; but if too long the glue loses its strength, and the rollers are injured.

This portion of the glue, thus soaked, is then put into the melting kettle, and placed over a fire, and stirred with a spatula; and when it is quite melted, the rest of the glue is added in similar portions, till the whole eight pounds are melted, which ought to have an hour’s boiling before adding the twelve pounds of treacle. The treacle is then gently poured into the melted glue, stirring them until they are well incorporated. This done, they are left over a moderate fire for an hour, stirring them with a spatula every ten minutes. The surface must be skimmed, and afterwards the vessel must be left a little time to slightly cool, before being poured into the mould.

The cylindrical tube in which the rollers are cast should be smeared in the inside with a brush with oil; neatsfoot oil is the best; and it is necessary that every part should be carefully oiled, and that the wooden cylinder should be well cleaned and free from moisture.

These observations can only apply generally to the making of rollers; it is practice which can alone furnish the particulars. The temperature varying in each season must be the object of special attention, as it renders the materials more or less flexible, and requires the composition to be more or less boiled.

It is a fault with rollers when they lug too much, as it detaches the composition from the wooden cylinder. When they are moist they should not be too much washed, as that also tends to make them lug, and detaches the composition. If they are used too soon after making, they distribute the ink badly, fill up the letters, and last but a very little time. They ought to be exposed to a current of air to dry them, and to be carefully scraped before being used, and again afterwards. If they are too dry they must be sponged all over and distributed upon the table until the water has disappeared, and then on a clean table, before taking ink. When they begin to grow old and hard by work, they must be washed in proper lye without being rinsed in water, and care and attention given to their wiping; and by these means they may be preserved for a considerable time. Rollers, when not in use, should be suspended in a place neither too dry nor too damp.

Recasting.—Before recasting old rollers, take great care to wash them well with lye, in order to detach the ink with which they are coated: if they are dry they must be scraped with a knife, as grease deteriorates the matter. Afterwards cut the composition all over with a knife, and it will then be easily detached from the wood. If it is new it will not need cutting, it will easily dissolve; if old it must be cut into little pieces, that it may dissolve more easily, and with less loss: if the composition is very strong, the little pieces must be washed in a pail of water, warm water is better than cold; add to it two pounds of treacle, for four rollers, and so in proportion: when the matter draws out well in threads, the composition is good.

If the rollers have been recast many times, and they draw too much, they may be recast without adding fresh treacle or glue. Rollers which are recast are better than new; they are more elastic and less melting. With three pounds of glue, five pounds of treacle, and the matter of three old rollers, four rollers can be made; if a small glass of spirits of wine be added it will facilitate the dissolving.

The rollers fail the most frequently at the ends. They ought to be dry, and clear from grease. It is a good plan before using them to scrape them clean, and to sponge the ends for about an inch and a half with spirits of wine, and to leave them to dry; the gelatine draws better.

A two-handled roller.


ROLLER

A wooden cylinder covered with composition, which, set in an iron frame, revolves upon a rod, and is used for inking type.

The American Printer: A Manual of Typography

Public domain (Project Gutenberg, pre-1930 text)


rolling machine

A machine introduced to save the labour of beating, the sheets being passed between two revolving cylinders.

The Art of Bookbinding: A Practical Treatise


rolling machine

a machine in which the sheets of a book are subject to heavy pressure by being passed between rollers.


rolling machine

A machine introduced to save the labor of beating. By it the sheets are passed between two revolving cylinders. Used in publishers’ binding.


ROSE ENGINE

The rose engine is, I believe, a French invention, and has long been used for turning ornaments on metal, for instance, watch cases and other articles of plate; it was afterwards applied to produce them to print from by the rolling press: during the sitting of the commission for inquiring into the best means for preventing the forgery of bank notes, about twenty years ago, Mr. Perkins introduced a specimen bank note which was partly executed by this machine; and the late Mr. Branston, then of the firm of Whiting and Branston, was, if I am not mistaken, the first to engrave by its means for letterpress printing, and the tickets and shares for the last state lottery were executed by it at Beaufort House. Its great value for the prevention of forgery is, that all circles, curved and angular lines produced by this machine are precisely similar to each other and true, however numerous, and however small or large; it would be next to impossible to produce the same designs, with the same accuracy, by the hand, and the operation would also be uncommonly tedious.

By the kindness of Mr. Holtzapffel I am enabled to introduce into this work a number of different patterns; only one specimen of each individual apparatus is given. The patterns which are capable of being produced are almost endless, and depend on the skill and taste of the operator; the variations in the designs being caused by different chucks being used in the operation; and the combinations of the effect produced by each chuck, either in straight lines, circles, ellipses, or as a ground covering the whole surface, in many instances are very delicate and have a beautiful effect. The following enumeration shows how the annexed specimens were produced.

Figs. 1. 10. Holtzapffel and Co.’s compound oval and eccentric chuck:—1. Two eccentric movements; 10. One oval and one eccentric movement. 2. 6. 8. Ibbetson’s geometric chuck, parts first, second and third. 3. Rose engine. 4. Straight line chuck. 5. Segment engine. 7. Oval chuck. 9. Eccentric chuck. 11. Eccentric chuck with the rose engine. 12. 15. Holtzapffel and Co.’s compound oval and eccentric chuck with the rose engine:—12. One oval and one eccentric movement; 15. Two eccentric movements. 13. Oval chuck with the rose engine. 14. Ibbetson’s compound eccentric chuck. 16. Geometric chuck combined with the rose engine. 17. Straight line chuck combined with the rose engine.

For details and descriptions of the various chucks, with the methods of operating with them, the reader is referred to Manuel de Tourneur, published by Bergeron in 1792, and to “Specimens in Eccentric Turning, with Practical Instructions. By John Holt Ibbetson, Esq.” Third Edition, 8vo. London. [1840.]

Mr. Ibbetson observes, “The number of beautiful designs which may be obtained by combining, on this principle, two circular adjusting movements is inconceivable. Consecutive circles, &c. may be arranged, not only in elliptical curves, but in the shape of hearts—in straight lines—in triangles—in squares—in polygons, and in both inward and outward looped figures.”

Patterns 1-8.

William Savage, A Dictionary of the Art of Printing, 1841

Patterns 9-16.

Patterns 17.


Roulette border

A border design produced by a wheel on the circumference of which is engraved a pattern that reproduces itself as the wheel is revolved.


ROUNCE

The handle by means of which the carriage of the press is run in and out.


ROUNCE

The handle for running in and out the carriage of a hand-press.


Round pick

A dot in a letter in a stereotype plate caused by an air-bubble.


rounding

The process by which the back of a book is made round.


Rounding hammer

A heavy, round-faced hammer used in rounding books.


roundlet

A small circle in gold.


Roxburgh binding

A binding with a rather narrow leather back, without bands, simply lettered, paper sides and no leather corners.


RUB OUT INK

Rubbing the ink out smooth and even on the ink-block with the brayer, for the purpose of taking small quantities with the balls tolerably diffused over their face.—M. The thinner and more equally it is rubbed out on the ink-block the better, as it in a great measure prevents monks and friars in working. In fine works, where strong ink is used, the pressman who beats should occupy his spare time in using the brayer, as it not only diffuses the ink more equably on the block, but causes it to work better.


Rubbing or rub-off

The name usually given to the copy of the lettering on the back of the book, made by holding thin paper tightly over the back and rubbing the paper with a heel-ball or a piece of plumbago.


RUBY

The name of a type, the next in size larger than Pearl and smaller than Nonpareil; it is half a Small Pica. Mr. Hansard, in his “Typographia,” gives the following account of its origin and name:—“It was, in fact, originally a Nonpareil with short ascenders and descenders, cast on a smaller body, or sometimes a Pearl, on a larger, to look open; but now some founders have a distinct specimen for this size. This name has but very lately been adopted in the type-founders’ specimens, but some years ago it was found, by the writer of this, absolutely necessary to give some distinguishing appellation to this size, as the letter-founders had given him one-nick Pearls of two bodies, viz. one fount half Small Pica, another half Long Primer; the mistakes arising from this circumstance in a house much in the habit of using small type occasioned the expedient of inventing a new name, and as the neighbouring sizes were called Pearl and Diamond, it seemed not very inapplicable to take the name of Ruby.”


RUCK

In printing at machines, the paper, particularly if it be soft and not flat, in travelling round the cylinders frequently wrinkles; this is termed Rucking, or the Paper Rucks, or the Paper is Rucked; when this takes place, the sheets may be looked on as spoiled when it is for book work: the best preventative is to press the wet paper well in a powerful press for an hour or two, with small quantities between the boards, just before it goes to the machine. I would not recommend more than five quires in each portion, although I am aware that a ream is generally put in; but the smaller the quantity between each two boards the flatter the paper will be, and less likely to ruck.


RULES and REGULATIONS

proper to be observed in a Printing Office.

Compositors.

1. Compositors to receive their cases from the Overseer, or other person appointed by him, free from all pie, or other heterogeneous matter, with clean quadrat and space boxes to both roman and italic, which they are to return to him in the same clean state.

2. When a Compositor receives letter, furniture, &c. from the Overseer, he is to return what he does not use, in a satisfactory state.

3. Compositors to impose their matter when desired by the Employer or Overseer; and the same for proofs that are desired to be corrected; unless in either case it shall appear that all the stones are engaged.

4. When the Compositor imposes from a form, he is directly to tie up the pages of loose matter.

5. Forms, immediately after they are imposed, to be carried to the proof press; and the proofs, when pulled, to be given to the Reader, or carried into the reading closet, with, if a first proof, the copy, and, if a second, the foul proof.

6. No Compositor shall leave a foul stone, of letter, furniture, &c.

7. No Compositor to detain an imposing stone longer than the nature of the business may require.

8. When any cases are taken out of the racks, the Compositor is to return them into their proper place immediately after he has done with the same.

9. No cases to be placed over others, or under the frames.

10. Galleys with head lines, or other useful materials used during the course of a piece of work, to be cleared at furthest the day after the work is all completely at press.

11. When a work is finishing, the Compositor or Compositors concerned shall, as the forms are finally worked, clear them away; taking from them the head lines, white lines, and direction lines, as also the leads and reglets, which, with the furniture of each sheet, the matter being properly tied up for papering, are to be given to the Overseer, or any person he may appoint.

12. Sweepings of frames to be cleared away before one o’clock every day. Matter broken by accident to be cleared away on the same day.

13. No Compositor to mix two separate founts, without an express order from the Overseer.

14. When a Compositor carries his form down for press, he is not to put two forms together without a partition between them.

15. The saw, saw block, bowl, sponge, letter brush, shears, bellows, &c., to be returned to their respective places as soon as done with.

16. No person to take a candlestick, bodkin, snuffers, composing stick, &c., not his own, without permission of the owner.

17. No person to misplace cases in the rack, or take an upper without the lower case, or vice versâ.

18. Pie of any sort, on boards, windows, frames, &c., to be cleared after five minutes notice.

19. No person to take sorts from the frames or cases of another without leave; nor to hoard useful sorts, not immediately wanting them.

20. No person (except the Master or Overseer) to call off the errand boy while he is sweeping his rooms.

21. No candle to be left by any one, except in charge of some proper person; and the boundaries of the office to be considered, in all cases, the open air.

22. Jobs to be cleared away immediately after notice having been given by the Overseer.

23. These regulations, in cases of extreme hurry of business, by leave from the Master or Overseer, may be suspended; but, when that has ceased, to be immediately resumed.

24. No Compositor to throw for money or liquor.

25. Not to throw letters, quadrats, quoins, or furniture at each other.

Pressmen.

1. All proofs to be pulled within five minutes after notice, by the Pressmen who are in proofs.

2. Immediately after pulling a proof, the Pressmen to rub over the forms and chases with a lye brush, and place them against the Compositor’s frame to whom they belong, where they are to leave the proof.

3. Not to work without a figure unless particularly ordered.

4. As soon as a form is wrought off, the pressman to carry it to the lye trough, and there completely rub it over with lye, rinse it, and then carry it to the wrought-off place, or to the end of the Compositor’s frame it belongs to.

5. Not to leave the lye jar uncovered.

These rules may be varied to suit the business of the office in which they may be adopted, or the size of the establishment; in practice it will be found essentially necessary to have established rules and regulations, that the business may be carried on with method and good order.

Rules. See Brass Rule. Metal Rules.


RUN IN THE CARRIAGE

Running the form under the platen, by turning the rounce.—M. This corroborates my opinion that the coffin, plank, &c., and not the long ribs, constitute the carriage, and that it was so understood in the seventeenth century. See Carriage.


RUN OUT

The running of the carriage from under the platen, by turning the rounce.

Run out from Copy.—M. See Drive Out. This term is not now used.


Run Up

When the back has a fillet run from head to tail without being mitred at each band, it is said to be run up.


Run Up

When the back has a fillet ran from head to tail without being mitred at each band, it is said to be “run-up.”


Run Up

When a back has a fillet run from top to bottom without being mitred at each band, it is said to be run up.


RUNIC

“Authors are much divided, as to the antiquity of the Runic characters; some suppose them to be very ancient, whilst others contend, that they are more modern than the ancient Gothic. Several writers affirm, that they were brought from Asia by the celebrated Woden. Olaus Wormius and Rudbeck contend, that they are older than the Greek. Mr. Wise says, that the Runic letters are found on coins, and on stone monuments, some of which may be near two thousand years old. He also supposes this alphabet to have been exceedingly ancient, and that it was formed from some alphabet of the Greeks, whilst it consisted of sixteen letters only, and before they had left the Eastern way of writing, from the right hand.

“The judicious Celsius was of opinion, that the Runic letters were nothing more than Roman letters, with the curves changed into straight lines, for the ease of engraving on hard substances. The learned and ingenious author of the History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire says, that the oldest Runic inscriptions are supposed to be of the third century; and he adds, that the most ancient writer, who mentions the Runic characters, is Venantius Fortunatus, who lived towards the end of the sixth century. Our opinion on the evidence before us, is, that the report of Woden having brought the Runic letters from Asia is entirely fabulous; that the tales of Rudbeck and Olaus Wormius, do not deserve the least attention; that Mr. Wise, though a respectable writer, is mistaken as to the antiquity of the Runic letters; that the opinion of the learned Celsius is nearly true, and that the Runic characters are composed partly of ancient Gothic and Greek letters, and partly of Roman, deformed and corrupted, probably by the Necromancers of the north, who used them in their spells and incantations, to which they were greatly addicted. The forms of several Runic letters, compared with the Greek and Gothic alphabets, sufficiently prove this observation. For instance, the Runic F or Fei, is a rude imitation of the Roman F, with the same vocal powers. The O or Oys, is an inverted digamma, with the power of the Roman U, that is of ou or W. R or Ridhur, is evidently the Roman R, with the same powers. I or Iis, is the Gothic and Roman I. S or Sol, is a resemblance of the ancient Greek Σ, with the same power. T or Tyr is an imitation of the Greek Tau, or Roman T. B or Biarkan is the Greek Beta, or Roman B; and L or Lagur appears to have been taken from the Grecian Lambda. We are of opinion, that the resemblances above pointed out, sufficiently evince, that the Runic characters are derived from the Greek, Gothic, and Roman letters.

“In the year 1001, the Swedes were persuaded by the Pope to lay aside the Runic letters, and to adopt the Roman in their room. In the year 1115, the Runic letters were condemned in Spain, by the council of Toledo. They were abolished in Denmark in the beginning of the fourteenth century, and in Iceland soon after.

“The order of the old Runic alphabet, which consisted of sixteen letters, was as follows: F, U, D, O, R, K, H, N, I, A, S, T, B, L, M, YR. It is not known when the order of the Runic alphabet was confounded, but we do not suppose that it is of greater antiquity upon that account.”—Astle.

Milman has the following remarks on the opinion of Gibbon quoted above by Mr. Astle: “The obscure subject of the Runic characters has exercised the industry and ingenuity of the modern scholars of the north. There are three distinct theories; one, maintained by Schlözer (Nordische Geschichte, p. 481, &c.), considers their sixteen letters to be a corruption of the Roman alphabet, post-Christian in their date, and Schlözer would attribute their introduction into the north to the Alemanni. The second, that of Frederick Schlegel (Vorlesungen über alte und neue Literatur), supposes that these characters were left on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Northern Seas by the Phœnicians, preserved by the priestly castes, and employed for purposes of magic. Their common origin from the Phœnician would account for their similarity to the Roman letters. The last, to which we incline, claims a much higher and more venerable antiquity for the Runic, and supposes them to have been the original characters of the Indo-Teutonic tribes, brought from the East, and preserved among the different races of that stock. See Über Deutsche Runen, von W. C. Grimm, 1821. A Memoir by Dr. Legis. Fundgruben des alten Nordens. Foreign Quarterly Review, vol. ix. p. 438.”—Gibbon, chap. ix. note 16.

The University of Oxford are in possession of the matrices of a Pica Runic, which is the only one in England.

Running Title. See Head Line.


Runner

The front board used in cutting edges, &c.


Runner

The front board used in cutting edges.


Running title

The title of the book or subject placed at the top of the pages.


RUNS ON SORTS

When matter runs much on some few sorts of letters, they say it runs on sorts. See Sorts.—M.


Runs on Sorts

when *Matter* runs much on some few Sorts of *Letters*, they say, *it Runs on Sorts*, See *Sorts*.


Russia leather

A fine leather prepared in Russia, and imitated elsewhere, by very careful willowbark tanning, dyeing with sandalwood, and soaking in birch oil. It is of a brownish red color, and has a peculiar and characteristic odor. The genuine is not often used in binding; it is not as strong as cowhide.


RUSSIAN

In the Russian alphabet there are thirty-four letters.

The English letters, made use of in explaining the sound of the Russian characters, are to be pronounced as follows:

The Russian Alphabet.

Most of the above letters invariably retain their proper sound, the following however are subject to slight variations.

Г, gā. In some instances bears the sound of a strongly aspirated h: герои, a hero, héroy; генералъ, a general, héneral; Господь, Lord, Hospod, and in the terminations of adjectives and pronouns, in the genitive case, may be pronounced either as v or h, его, yāho or yāvo; что новаго? what news, tchtō nōvahō, or nōvavō?

Е, ā. At the commencement of words bears the sound of yā, ex. есть, it is, yaste; едва, scarcely, yādva. When it precedes two consonants, or a consonant followed by the hard sign, ъ, it generally bears the sound of yeo, as in yeoman, the accent falling upon o, ex. медъ, honey, meo͡dd; ленъ, flax, leo͡nn; орелъ, an eagle, oreo͡ll.

ѣ, yā. Is pronounced like yā at the commencement of a word, and like ā in the middle or at the end, ex. ѣхать, to ride, yachat; лѣнорть, idleness, lānoste; на столъ, on the table, na stollāy.

There are eleven vowels in the Russian alphabet, which are divided into hard and soft.

Hard а, о, у, э, ы. Soft я, е, ю, и, ѣ’.

In the combination of vowels with consonants, they are subject to the following variations:

The only diphthongs in the Russian language are those formed by the combination of и with the other vowels: ай, ей, ій, ой, ый, яй. When и occurs without the ̆ it must be pronounced separately from the vowel, which precedes it, ex. воиин, a warrior, vo-een. Whenever two vowels occur together in a word (excepting the above-mentioned diphthongs) each bears its full and separate sound, ex. воображеніе, imagination, vō-ob-ra-jā-nē-ā—A Practical Grammar of the Russian Language, by James Heard. 2 Parts, 12mo. St. Petersburg, 1827.

The Russian Alphabet


RUTHVEN’S PRESS

Ruthven’s patent press differs materially from all others. Instead of the form of types being rolled under the platen, and back again when the impression has been made, the type form remains stationary upon the iron table, the platen is drawn over it, and the impression is obtained by means of a lever working vertically like the handle of a pump, and acting by connecting levers upon both sides of the platen, so as to draw it down with ease and effect. It is a good and powerful press, but the head and platen are heavy and require exertion to push them back off the form, and more particularly as the ribs, if the grooves in which the wheels attached to the head and platen travel may be so called, form an inclined plane, which causes the platen to come forward over the form with but little exertion.


Saddle-stitched

A pamphlet or book of one signature only sewed with thread or fastened with wire staples along the back is said to be saddle-stitched.


SAMARITAN

It is the opinion of many of the most eminent Hebrew scholars, that this alphabet is the one made use of by the ancient Hebrews, and with which Moses himself wrote the Pentateuch; and that the Hebrew letters at present in use are those of the Chaldees of Babylon, introduced by Ezra in consequence of the Jews having forgotten their own characters during the Captivity. It agrees with the Hebrew and Syriac, in respect to the number and power of the letters, though it differs as to their forms, as may be seen from the annexed table:

It will be readily perceived that this is one of the most simple of the Oriental alphabets, as there are no initials or medials, as is the case with the Arabic and Syriac; there are no letters lengthened for the sake of ornament, as in the Hebrew and Chaldee; and there are no finals.

With respect to pronunciation, ࠀ ࠇ and ࠏ seem to differ very little from each other, if we may judge from their frequent permutation.

In writing the numbers, they follow the Hebrew system of notation, with this exception, that for 15 they use both ࠄࠉ (10 and 5) with the Syrians, and ࠅࠈ (9 and 6) with the Jews.

The Samaritans are altogether destitute of vowel points, and their power is to be collected from the cognate languages.

The quiescents are the same in Samaritan as in Hebrew and Chaldee, namely, four, ࠀ, ࠄ, ࠅ, ࠉ. The situations and the points, by which each becomes quiescent, are the same as in Hebrew.

The Samaritans use also certain points and lines in writing, partly for the sake of distinction, and partly of abbreviation. The points are as follow:—

1. A thick point placed near the top of the letter distinguishes one word from another, thus ࠰ࠄࠄࠋࠀ ࠰ࠓࠌࠀࠅ and God said.

2. An imperfect sentence is indicated by two transverse points, in this manner, ࠰࠰ࠌࠉࠌࠋ saying—

3. A period or perfect sentence is marked by two perpendicular points, thus, ࠱ࠄࠌࠅࠄࠕ ࠰ࠉࠐࠀ ࠰ࠋࠏ upon the face of the deep.

4. The beginning of every verse is marked by an asterisk, as, -¦-ࠅࠀࠌࠓ࠰ࠀࠋࠄ࠰ And God said.

5. In long paragraphs a third point is added to the period, thus, ¦-, and in order to point off sections various lines are made use of, as :>-, ¦-—, in which much is left to fancy.

A line drawn above a letter denotes:—

1. That words with two meanings must not be received in their more general signification, as, ࠓࠓࠓ̅ࠓ bedebher, in pestilence, not ࠁࠃࠁࠓ bedabhar, in a word; ࠌࠔ̅ Sem, for a proper name, not an appellative; ࠋࠀ̅ El, for the name of God, and not the preposition.

2. Apocope, or elision of a letter, as, ࠕ̅ࠀ for ࠄࠕࠀ atta, thou; ࠏ̅ࠔࠉࠅ for ࠄࠏࠔࠉࠅ and he looked back.

3. The mark of a quiescent letter, as, ࠉࠅ̅ࠔ he placed.

4. The substitution of one letter for another, as, ࠕ̅ࠌࠔ for ࠄࠌࠔ his name.

The preceding observations are abridged from the “Synopsis Institutionum Samaritanarum” of George Otho, printed at Frankfort-on-the-Main, 1707.

Samaritan in the British Founderies.

English. Oxford.

Pica. Caslon. Grover, to James, to Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley; cut for Walton’s Polyglot.

Small Pica. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley.

The Samaritan Alphabet


SANSKRITA

The term Sanskṛita seems to have been given to the language so called by way of pre-eminence, and to distinguish it from the vulgar dialects called Prākṛita. The former is an epithet implying elegance and perfection, and the latter the contrary.

Several of the provinces of India have alphabets distinct from each other, in which they not only write their particular dialects, but even Sanskṛita. Indeed most of the alphabets, properly Indian, agree in the number, order, and power of their letters, with the Dēva-nāgari, the one here used, because it is that in which Sanskṛita is most commonly written, and which is the most elegant and approved.

All languages of the Hindu class are read from left to right.

THE ALPHABET.

अ a,   आ ā;   इ i,   ई ī;   उ u,   ऊ ū;   ऋ ri,   ॠ ṛī;   ऌ ḷri,

ॡ ḷrī;   ए ē,   ऐ ai;   ओ ō,   औ au; ॱ am, ः ah.

In speaking of the letters individually, it is the practice to use the term कार: kārah (make, form) after each of their names as here exhibited: thus the vowel अ a, is called अकार: a-kārah; and the consonant क ka, ककार: ka-kārah.

OF THE VOWELS.

The simple vowels are reckoned five; for which there are ten characters: अ a, इ i, उ u, ऋ ṛi, ऌ ḷri, to denote the short sounds; and आ ā, ई ī, ऊ ū, ॠ ṛī, ॡ ḷrī their corresponding long sounds, which are directed to be held twice the time of the short.

Most of the vowels, occasionally, assume a very different shape from that exhibited in the alphabet, which the following arrangement may serve to explain.

As Initials.

अ    आ    इ    ई    उ    ऊ    ऋ    ॠ    ऌ    ॡ    ए    ऐ    ओ    औ

As Medials and Finals.

ऻ    ि     ी    ु    ू    ृ    ॄ    ॖ    ॗ    े    ै   ो   ौ

Initials, Medials, and Finals, in composition with a Consonant.

अक aka, आका ākā, इकि iki, ईकी īkī, उकु uku, ऊकू ūkū, ऋकृ ṛikṛi, ॠकॄ ṛīkṛī,

ऌकॢ ḷrikḷri, ॡकॣ ḷrīkḷrī, एके ēkē, ऐकै aikai, ओको ōkō, औकौaukau.

In this manner the vowels may be combined with any other consonant.

As the letters have the same powers in composition which are given to them in the alphabet, and do not, as in our language, change their sound with their situation, a few observations on the pronunciation of each character in due order, may enable a person to read with tolerable accuracy and ease.

अ a, the first letter in the alphabet, has that obscure short sound which the French give to e, in the particle le, and which is very common in our language, though there be no distinct character for it; as in the words money, honey, and some others, where it is represented by o; and in but, shut, and the like, where u is the substitute. The letter अ never makes its appearance but as an initial; for when the sound of it is required after a consonant, as a medial or final, it is pronounced with it as in the alphabet; it being an invariable rule, that every open consonant, not followed by another vowel, must be pronounced as if अ a were written after it.

आ ā should have the same sound as is given to the former, held twice the length. It occurs, as a medial, in the word काला kāla, Time, the first syllable of which is pronounced nearly like the English word call. As a medial and final its character is [#].

इ i, and ई ī, are two characters to note the sound which the Italians give to the vowel i. The former is to be pronounced short, like ee in meet (encounter), and the latter long, like the same letters in meet (fit). After a consonant, as a medial and final, as has been already observed, they are changed to ि and ी , which are placed as in the words मणि: manih, A jewel, and देवी dēvī, A goddess.

उ u, and ऊ ū, are to be articulated like oo in the English words foot, and fool. After a consonant they are usually subjoined; as in पुत्र: putrah, A son, and भू: bhūh, The earth; but occasionally, particularly after र r, on the side, thus रु ru, रू rū.

ऋ ṛi, and ॠ ṛī. The first of these sounds short, somewhat like ri in rit; and the second is the same held twice as long. ॠ ṛi short occurs in ऋत ṛita, Right, True. The other is very rarely used, except it be in the oblique cases of some nouns. In our characters a dot under the ṛ may serve to distinguish them from the syllables रि ri and री rī. As medials or finals they are always placed under their consonants, in this form, नृ nṛi, नॄ nṛī.

ऌ ḷri, and ॡ ḷrī. The short power is found in the word कॢप्त kḷripta, which the learned of Bengal soften into kḷipta, and which, probably, is the true pronunciation of it. The long form seldom, if ever, occurs but in grammars. Here too a dot under the ḷ will serve as a distinction, when we would explain them.

ए ē, though classed among diphthongs, differs not from the simple sound of e in where; and so it is pronounced in [###] dēvah, A god. It is said to be a compound of अ a and इ i.

ऐ ai is a diphthong, and is always sounded as the letter i in our alphabet; but it will be better to represent it by ai. There is an example of it in the word रै: raih, Wealth.

ओ ō differs not from our o held long, as in stone; though it is said to be a diphthong composed of अ a and उ u.

औ au is decidedly a diphthong, having the power of ow in the word how; which in these letters would be written thus, हौ hau.

Here properly end the vowels, for ं am, and : ah, are, correctly speaking, rather substitutes for the nasals, and ह ha, when silent, at the end of a syllable. They are called अनुस्वार: anuswārah, and विसर्ग: visargah. The one occurs in the pronouns अहं aham, I, and त्वं twam, Thou, and the other in स: sah, He.

OF THE CONSONANTS.

The first five-and-twenty consonants are distributed into five classes, in the plural number called वर्गा: vargāh; in speaking of which, they are named after the first letter of each class: the first class being called कवर्ग: ka-vargah, the class of क ka; the second चवर्ग: cha-vargah, the class of च cha; and so for the rest. Some grammarians use the first letter of each class combined with उ, to denote all the letters in each class respectively, as, कु ku, for the first; चु chu, for the second; टु ṭu, for the third; तु tu, for the fourth; and पु pu, for the fifth class.

The First Class, or Gutturals, क ख ह घ ङ.

क ka has the precise sound of hard c, but is better expressed by k, the power of which not being liable to change.

ख kha has the same sound uttered with greater force, as if combined with the letter ह ha. Ignorant transcribers are very apt to confound it with the letter श sha.

ग ga is the hard g, as sounded in gun.

घ gha is the same aspirated.

ङ nga is equivalent to ng in king. Generally speaking, every other nasal is resolved into this, before any letter of this class; or, at least, to be pronounced like it. In Dēva-nāgari manuscripts, it is, when silent, for the most part represented by the single dot [ं] अनुस्वार: anuswāra.

The Second Class, or Palatals, च छ ज छ ञ.

च cha has the exact power we express by ch, as in church.

छ ch’ha is the former aspirated.

ज ja has the power of g soft, as in Giles; but will be more certainly expressed by j, as in James.

छ jha is the aspirate of the former.

ञ ṇa. This is the proper nasal of this class, which in composition is sounded rather softer than ङ nga, It seems to be formed by pressing the whole breadth of the tongue into the hollow of the palate, the tip turned downwards, and forcing the sound through the nose, with the mouth open. It is chiefly used before letters of its own class; but in Dēva-nāgari manuscripts, as is the case with the other nasals, it is generally expressed by [ं] anuswārah. It seldom appears with another consonant immediately before, or a vowel after it: indeed there are but few instances of it, (except in grammatical compositions,) one of which is in the root ज्ञा jnā, signifying know, and its derivatives, where the character ज्ञ is said to be a compound of ज ja and ञ ṅa, the just articulation of which is found so difficult, and the sound so harsh, that it is frequently softened into gyā, as if written ग्या. As the sound of ण before another consonant approaches nearer to that of n than any other letter, it may be represented by it, with a mark over it, thus, ṅ.

The Third Class, or Cerebrals, ट ठ ड ढ ण.

This series of consonants is pronounced by turning and applying the tip of the tongue far back against the palate; which producing a hollow sound, as if proceeding from the head, it is distinguished by the term मूर्द्धन्य mūrddhanya, which Mr. Halhed, in his Grammar of the Bengal Language, has translated cerebral.

ट ṭa has the sound of t, articulated as above directed.

ठ ṭha is the same aspirated.

ड ḍa differs from the common d only in the above particular. In Bengal it is generally pronounced like a very obtuse r.

ढ ḍha is the same aspirated.

ण ṇa is distinguished from the common n by the manner of producing it, as above.

In our letters those of this class may be conveniently expressed by a dot under ṭ, ḍ, ṇ.

The Fourth Class, or Dentals, त थ द ध न.

त ta is the common dental t.

थ tha is the former aspirated.

द da has the power of our d.

ध dha is the aspirate of द da.

न na is the common n. It is sometimes, like the other nasals, represented by anuswāra [ं].

The Fifth Class, or Labials, प फ ब भ म.

प pa corresponds with p.

फ pha is the former aspirated. In writing foreign words with these characters, this letter is used for the sound of f.

ब ba. This letter is very often confounded with व va. Its power is that of b.

भ bha is the aspirate of ब ba.

म ma is m. When silent it is often expressed by [ं] anuswāra; as in संवत् samvat, A year, an æra.

The Semi-Vowels, य र ल व.

य ya. This letter, which is a palatal, like our y (with which it corresponds), is often put in the place of इ i and ई ī. Its proper power is that of y in yarn; but in Bengal they generally pronounce it as we do j, confounding it with ज ja.

र ra is our r. It is esteemed a cerebral. In composition it frequently assumes two other forms. In the middle of a word, immediately preceding another consonant, it is mounted upon its head in this shape [#], when it is optional in the writer to double the letter with which it so coalesces: as in the word कार्य्य kāryya, An affair, which is pronounced kārya. After a consonant it is always subjoined in this shape [#], as in the word प्रकार prakāra, A sort or manner. This letter, in grammars, is generally called रेफ rēpha.

ल la answers to our l. It is ranked among dentals.

व va is generally pronounced like v, and is then a dento-labial; but when subjoined to another consonant, it is often necessarily articulated as our w, it being then frequently the natural substitute for उ u before another vowel; as द्वौ ḍwau, Two.

The Sibilants and Aspirate, ष ष स ह.

ष ṣa. The proper sound of this letter is produced by applying the tip of the tongue to the fore-part of the palate, and passing the voice as in pronouncing our s, from which it may be distinguished by a dot under it, thus, ṣ. It is a palatal.

ष sha is generally pronounced as sh in shoe; but in the western parts of India it is frequently articulated like, and confounded with ख kha. It is a cerebral.

स sa has precisely the power of s in Saint, and is esteemed a dental.

ह ha is h. At the end of a word, when silent, it is represented by [ः] visarga. It is classed among gutturals. This properly is the last letter in the alphabet, [#] ksha, as before observed, being a compound character.

There is another letter, not usually given in the Dēva-nāgar alphabet, in this form, ॡ, which seems to have a power similar to that of the surd, or Welsh ll. It occurs in the Vēdas, and is included in some of the provincial alphabets.

OF COMPOUND CONSONANTS.

The sound of अ a, it has been already mentioned, is given to every open consonant, not followed by another vowel; but as it must often happen that a word ends with a consonant, or that two or more consonants meet together without a vowel between them, it is proper the learner should know what is done in these two cases. If a word terminates in a consonant, the vowel is cut off by a small mark of elision, such as is seen under क ka in the word वाक् vāk, Speech, which written without it, thus, वाक, would be pronounced vāka. If two or more consonants meet together, it is a general rule that they coalesce, and form a compound character. Sometimes it so happens that the simple letters are not to be traced in the compound, instances of which occur in [#] ksha, and क्ष jṅa, which are composed of क and श, and ज and ण; but, in general, the shapes of the letters are so little altered, that they may be easily discriminated. There are several modes of forming these compounds: sometimes it is found convenient to put one letter under the other, and at others to blend them together, thus, द्ध; but the most usual way is to place them in their natural order, yet so that their bodies, as well as heads, may be in contact, omitting the final upright stroke of every letter that has one, except the last. In the word कार्त्स्न्यं kārtsnyam, Wholeness, there is a coalition of no less than five consonants; namely, र, त, स, न, and य; ra, in a new shape, is mounted upon the head, and त ta, स sa, and न na, deprived of their upright strokes, thus, [#] [#] [#], are connected, and finally united to य ya. A little practice will render this subject familiar to the learner.

OF EXTRANEOUS CHARACTERS.

One stroke, thus [#], or two, thus [#], serve to divide hemistichs and distichs.

A sort of sigma, in this shape, [#], is frequently used as an apostrophe, to show that a vowel has been dropped by rule.

A character like a crescent, with a dot between its horns, thus, ँ, is occasionally put over a consonant, which by the rules of orthography has been substituted for a nasal.

In the Vēda other diacritical marks are used, which do not occur in common books. A small perpendicular line over a vowel, thus अ॑, denotes that it is to be pronounced high; a parallel line drawn under a vowel, thus अ॒, denotes that it should be pronounced low; and a curved line over a vowel, thus [#], indicates that it must be pronounced in a manner to partake of both the former. The intention of these three marks seems to be the same as what was originally designed by the acute, the grave, and the circumflex accents. A figure of three is sometimes put after a vowel, thus अ३, or three lines over it, thus [#], to show that it is to be held longer than usual, as in calling, or crying.

Two dots, thus ः, called visarga (विसर्ग:), are used to denote a final [#]. They are occasionally represented in this manner [#].

A single dot over a letter, thus अं, is called anuswārah (अनुस्वार:), and denotes a final nasal.

The numerical figures are, १  २  ३  ४  ५  ६  ७  ८  ९  ० 1  2  3  4  5  6  7  8  9  0

In the Vēdas, the character for ं anuswāra, before व, स, ह, and र, is in this form, [#]; so for [###] is written [###].

A Grammar of the Sanskrita Language, by Charles Wilkins, LL.D. F.R.S. 4to. 1808.

Sanskrit in the British Founderies.

English. Caslon; cut for Dr. Wilkins, Oriental Librarian to the East India Company.

The Sanskrita Alphabet


SAW

A small thin saw, with a back to strengthen it, to cut furniture with. I would have the blade much narrower than it generally is, so broad only as to cut fairly through the furniture, before the back stops it from cutting deeper by resting on the saw block; it would then prevent the saw block from being cut so much as it generally is in a careless manner, sometimes even through at the front, till the saw comes in contact with the stone, and is spoiled.


SAW BLOCK

A piece of wood on which to cut furniture to certain lengths; it is similar to a carpenter’s mitre block, with the addition of a cut at right angles. The customary place for using it is on the fore edge of the imposing stone.

A wooden saw block.


SAW BLOCK

A box similar to a carpenter’s mitre-block, to guide in cutting furniture, &c.


sawing in

When grooves are made in the back with a saw to receive the bands.

Bib-li-op-e-gis-tic: Pertaining to the Art of Binding Books


sawing in

When the back is sawn for the reception of the cord in sewing.


sawing in

Making grooves in the back of a book with a saw to receive strings or bands.


SAWING MACHINE

A machine for sawing the backs of books quickly.


SAXON,

or Anglo-Saxon. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet contains twenty-three letters; Q not being originally a Saxon letter.           Form. Sound. Form. Sound.      [A] A a a as in bar  N n n    B b b  O o o   [C] C c c as in choice  P p p    D ꝺ d  R ꞃ r   [E] E e e as in feint [S] S ꞅ s    F ꝼ f  T ꞇ t   [G] G ᵹ g as in gem Ð Þ ð þ th   [H] H h h  U u u    I ı i  Ƿ ƿ w    K k k  X x x    L l l  Y ẏ y   [M] M m m  Z z z       For anꝺ the Saxons used these abbreviations, ⁊ and [#]; for þaꞇ and þæꞇ they wrote ꝥ; and for oððe or, and the termination lıce ly, they wrote ł; as ł or; and ꞅoðł for ꞅoðlıce truly.  [Note.] We also find uł for or; Ƿıłłm. for Ƿıllelm, William; and [H]æł, for [H]ælenꝺ, Jesus; ł stands for leoꝼeꞅꞇan, φίλτατοι, amicissimi, most friendly or beloved; apł, ap̃, or ap°, for apoꞅole, an apostle; apłar, apostles; [H]ieꞃłm, Jerusalem,; ꞅcıł, a shilling, money.  When an m was omitted, they made a short stroke over the preceding letter; as þā for þam.  [Note.] There are many other abbreviations and connectives; such as æꝼꞇ̃ æꝼꞇeꞃ, after; allm̃ allmıhꞇıᵹ, almighty; am̃, amen; ancen, ancenneꝺe, only begotten; b, b̵, bıꞅc̃, bıꞅcop, a bishop; bꞃoð, bꞃođ, bꞃoþeꞃn, brethren; caꞃc̃, caꞃceꞃne, a prison; cꝼꞇ, [#], Cꞃıꞅꞇ, xꞃeꞅ, Cꞃıꞅꞇeꞅ, Christ, Christ’s; c̃ƿ, cƿæð, saith; [#] for ꝺæᵹ, a day; ꝺꝺ, ꝺđ, David; ꝺꞃīh, ꝺꞃıhꞇ̃, Lord; ꝺñꞅ ꝺꞃıhꞇneꞅ, Lords; ꝼ̃ ꝼoꞃ, for, on account of; ᵹ̃, ᵹeaꞃe, a year; Iħr, Ihc̃, Jesus; ꞅ. [M]. ꞅeınꞇe [M]aꞃıe, St. Mary; ꞅ. p. St. Peter; ƿũꞇ, ƿuꞇoꝺlıce, certainly, &c. See Thwaites, p. 1

or Anglo-Saxon. The Anglo-Saxon alphabet contains twenty-three letters; Q not being originally a Saxon letter.

For anꝺ the Saxons used these abbreviations, ⁊ and [#]; for þaꞇ and þæꞇ they wrote ꝥ; and for oððe or, and the termination lıce ly, they wrote ł; as ł or; and ꞅoðł for ꞅoðlıce truly.

[Note.] We also find uł for or; Ƿıłłm. for Ƿıllelm, William; and [H]æł, for [H]ælenꝺ, Jesus; ł stands for leoꝼeꞅꞇan, φίλτατοι, amicissimi, most friendly or beloved; apł, ap̃, or ap°, for apoꞅole, an apostle; apłar, apostles; [H]ieꞃłm, Jerusalem,; ꞅcıł, a shilling, money.

When an m was omitted, they made a short stroke over the preceding letter; as þā for þam.

[Note.] There are many other abbreviations and connectives; such as æꝼꞇ̃ æꝼꞇeꞃ, after; allm̃ allmıhꞇıᵹ, almighty; am̃, amen; ancen, ancenneꝺe, only begotten; b, b̵, bıꞅc̃, bıꞅcop, a bishop; bꞃoð, bꞃođ, bꞃoþeꞃn, brethren; caꞃc̃, caꞃceꞃne, a prison; cꝼꞇ, [#], Cꞃıꞅꞇ, xꞃeꞅ, Cꞃıꞅꞇeꞅ, Christ, Christ’s; c̃ƿ, cƿæð, saith; [#] for ꝺæᵹ, a day; ꝺꝺ, ꝺđ, David; ꝺꞃīh, ꝺꞃıhꞇ̃, Lord; ꝺñꞅ ꝺꞃıhꞇneꞅ, Lords; ꝼ̃ ꝼoꞃ, for, on account of; ᵹ̃, ᵹeaꞃe, a year; Iħr, Ihc̃, Jesus; ꞅ. [M]. ꞅeınꞇe [M]aꞃıe, St. Mary; ꞅ. p. St. Peter; ƿũꞇ, ƿuꞇoꝺlıce, certainly, &c. See Thwaites, p. 1.

In studying the Anglo-Saxon tongue, it is of great consequence to remark, that the inevitable changes introduced by the lapse of time through successive ages; the existence of the three great dialects, and their frequent intermixture; the variety of Anglo-Saxon writers, and their little acquaintance with each other; but, above all, their total disregard of any settled rules of orthography; have occasioned many irregularities in the language, and thrown difficulties in the way of the learner, which at first sight appear truly formidable; but, on closer inspection, these difficulties present no insuperable obstacle.

The principal difficulty consists in this: The Anglo-Saxon writers often confounded some letters, and used them indifferently for each other. This is the case to a most surprising extent with the vowels and diphthongs; so that the consonants, though often treated in the same manner, form the only part of the language which possesses any thing like a fixed and permanent character.

Remarks on the Change of the Consonants required for derivation and declension.

B.

B, F, or U, are often interchanged; as

Bebeꞃ, beꝼoꞃ, a beaver. Iꝼıᵹ, ıueᵹ ivy. Obeꞃ, oꝼeꞃ, oueꞃ, over. [E]bolꞅan, eꝼolꞅan to blaspheme. Foꞇ, uoꞇ a foot.

C.

C often interchanges with G, K and Q; as

Ðonceꞅ, þonᵹeꞅ thoughts. [C]ẏð, kẏð kindred. [C]ẏnınᵹ, kẏnınᵹ a king. Aceꞃ, Akeꞃ a field. [C]ƿen, quen, a queen, wife, &c.

C and CC are also often changed into H, or Hh, before ꞅ or ð, and especially before ꞇ; as Sꞇꞃehꞇon they strewed, for ꞅꞇꞃecꞇon, from ꞅꞇꞃeccan. Ahꞅıan for acꞅıan or axıan to ask. ꞅehđ for ꞅecđ seeks, from ꞅecan to seek.

In Dan. Sax. C changes into ᵹ, h, hƿ and k; and ch changes into h.

D.

D and T are often used indiscriminately for each other, and Ð is changed into ꝺ, especially in verbs; as ꞅeođan to boil or seeth; ꞅoꝺen boiled, ıc cƿæđ I said; þu cƿæ đe thou saidst. he ƿẏꞃđ he is or becomes; þu ƿuꞃꝺe thou becomest.

F.

In Dan. Sax. F changes into b and p.

G.

G is often changed into h and ƿ; as [H]eꞃeꞇoha for heꞃeꞇoᵹa a leader; Dahum for ꝺaᵹum with days; Geꞅƿıᵹan to be silent; ᵹeꞅuƿoꝺe he was silent or dumb; ꞅoꞃh for ꞅoꞃᵹe sorrow.

G interchanges with I and Y, when I has a sort of a consonant sound; as ᵹeo, ıeo or ıu yore, formerly; ᵹeoᵹuđ, ıeoᵹuđ youth; ᵹeoc, ıoc or ıuc yoke.

G is often suppressed before n, or ᵹn lengthened into ᵹen; as þẏꞅıᵹne, Þẏꞅıne from þyꞅꞅ or þıꞅ this, and ænıᵹne, aenıne, from aenıᵹ any. G is often added to words that end with ı, as hıᵹ for hı they; and on the contrary G is often omitted in those words which end in ıᵹ; as ꝺꞃı for ꝺꞃıᵹ or ꝺꞃẏᵹ, dry.

In Dan. Sax. G is sometimes dropped, or changed into C, H, or K; and GS into X.

H.

[H] is sometimes changed into ᵹ; as þaᵹ for þah he grew or throve, from þean to grow.

In Dan. Sax. [H] is sometimes added to words, and sometimes dropped; or it is changed into c, ᵹ, ch, or k; and [H]u into ƿ.

K.

The Saxons originally expressed the sound of the modern K by C. As C also stood for a soft sound, it was difficult to know when it was to be sounded hard, and when soft. To remove this difficulty, the Danes and Normans introduced the letter K to denote the hard sound of C.

L.

L and N are often written double or single without any distinction at the end of monosyllables; but this reduplication ceases when words are lengthened, so that a consonant follows; as ƿell or ƿel well; ealle or al all (omnis); ealne, all (omnem); also ıc ꞅẏlle, þu ꞅẏlꞅꞇ, he ꞅylđ, I sell, thou, &c.

In Dan. Sax. L is sometimes put for R.

M and N.

In Dan. Sax. these two letters are sometimes interchangeable; and N is occasionally dropped.

P.

The Saxon p and ƿ are easily mistaken for each other, both in MSS. and on coins; and even in printed books great care is sometimes necessary to distinguish these letters.

In Dan. Sax. P changes occasionally into B and U.

Q.

Q is not an original Saxon letter, and very seldom occurs in MSS.; Cw and Cu were commonly employed where Q is now used.

R.

R in Dan. Sax. is occasionally added to words, and is sometimes changed into L.

S.

S and Z are merely variations of the same original letter. The Z is only the S hard.

In Dan. Sax. Ss, Ð, or X are sometimes substituted for S.

T.

T in Dan. Sax. occasionally changes into D and Ð.

W.

In Dan. Sax. W changes into F and Ui; We into oe, u, ue; Wi, into u, uu; Wa, into uıæ, ƿæ; Wr, into war; and Wu, into u.

X.

X is sometimes supplied by cꞅ; as neoꞃcꞅen for neoꞃxen quiet. In Dan. Sax. X interchanges with S.

Z.

Z is only the S hard. See S.

Remarks on the Vowels and Diphthongs.

If the consonants,—those natural sinews of words and language,—suffer such changes, it may safely be presumed, that those flexible and yielding symbols, the vowels, would be exposed to still greater confusion; a confusion almost sufficient to induce one to imagine that they are of no weight or authority, in Anglo-Saxon orthography.

A.

A kind of Italic a is much used in Anglo-Saxon MSS. Where we now use A or E, the diphthongs Æ, Œ, and Ea continually occur in Anglo-Saxon; but Œ more frequently in Dan. Sax.

The vowel A and its diphthongs thus interchange.

A and O. See under O.

A and Æ: as ac, æc an oak; aceꞃ, æceꞃ a field; habban to have, ıc hæbbe I have; ꞅꞇan a stone; ꞅꞇænen stony; laꞃ doctrine; læꞃan to teach; an one; æniᵹ any one.

Æ and EA: as æ, ea water; æc, eac eternal.

Æ and Œ: as aeᵹhƿeꞃ, ceᵹhƿeꞃ everywhere; aeᵹhƿilc, oeᵹhƿilc every one.

Æ and Y: as ælc, ẏlc each one.

In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently:—A, æ, e, ea, o, eo; Æ, e, ıe, œ, o, ea, ue.

E.

E interchanges with [Æ]. It is often added to the end of Anglo-Saxon words where it does not naturally belong, and it is as often rejected where it does.

Eo is changed into ẏ and e, and ea into e, but more usually into ẏ.

[E]aðe, eðe easily; and ceaᵹreꞃ, cereeꞃ a castle.

[S]eolꝼ, ꞅelꝼ, ꞅẏlꝼ self; ꞅẏllan, ꞅellan to give, sell, &c.

Neah near; nehꞅꞇ nearest; ealꝺ old; ꞅe ẏlꝺꞃa the elder; ƿealꝺan to rule, he ƿelꞇ or ƿẏlꞇ he rules; leaꞅ loose, lẏꞅan to loose; ᵹeleaꝼa belief, ᵹelẏꝼan to believe.

In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently:—E, a, eo, ce, O, u, as, ea, ẏ; ea, eo, ı, ẏ; eau, eoƿ; ee, e; eı, œ, ı; eo, a, e, ı, ıƿ, u; eu, ẏƿ.

I.

I is interchanged with e and y; as

Iᵹlanb, eᵹlanb, ẏᵹlanb an island; eꝼel, ẏᵹel evil; ıꞃþımᵹ, eaꞃþımᵹ, ẏꞃþlınᵹ a farmer; ꞃen rain, ꞃınan to rain; beꞃnan to burn, bẏꞃnan to set on fire; cƿeþan to say, þu cƿyꞅꞇ, cƿıꞅꞇ, thou sayest.

In Dan. Sax. these occur indifferently: I, ıa, ıo, eo, ẏ; ıœ, ıe, œ; ıuh, eoƿ.

O.

O is changed into u, e and ẏ, and eo into ẏ; but sometimes into a, especially before n in a short or terminating syllable.

Oꝺe and oꝺ, into aꝺe and aꝺ; ꝺom ᵹudgment, ꝺeman to judge; ꝼꞃoꝼeꞃ comfort, ꝼꞃeꝼꞃtan to comfort; ꝼoc a foot, ꝼec feet; boc a book, bee books; ꞅcoꞃm a storm, ꞅcẏꞃman to storm; ᵹolꝺ gold, ᵹẏlꝺen golden; ƿoꞃb a word, anꝺƿyꞃꝺan to answer; ƿeoꞃc a work, ƿẏꞃcean to work; heoꞃb or hẏꞃꝺe a herd; ıoc, ıuc me a yoke; leƿan, ᵹoƿan to show; man and mon a man; lanᵹ and lonᵹ long; ꞅanꝺ and ꞅonꝺ sand.

In Dan. Sax. these occur:—O, a, e, I, u; œ, æ, e, o, ue, ƿe; oea, eo; oƿe, uu.

U.

U is sometimes converted into ẏ: as ꞅcꞃuꝺ clothing, ꞅcꞃyꝺan to clothe; cuþ known, cẏþan to make known.

In Dan. Sax. these are used indiscriminately:—U, ꝺ, ꝼ, o, oƿ, ƿe, ƿı, ƿu; ue, æ, œ, ƿe; uı, ƿ; uu, oƿe.

Y.

The Anglo-Saxon Y is the Greek Υ (upsilon), or, as the French call it, y Greque. The ẏ was not dotted in the oldest MSS.

Y is sometimes changed into u.

In Dan. Sax. these occur:—Y into e, ea, ı; and Yƿ into eu.

Further Remarks on the Letters.

The preceding observations on the consonants and vowels will render the following peculiarities less surprising, and may perhaps explain their causes.

The final letters of words are often omitted: as ƿomb, ƿom; ƿæᵹ or ƿeᵹ, ƿe.

A vowel near, or at the end of a word, is often absorbed by the preceding or succeeding consonant, especially if that consonant be a semi-vowel; but either that or the nearest vowel is still understood: as Luꝼꞅꞇ for luꝼaꞅꞇ lovest; luꝼð for luꝼað loveth; and other verbs in the 2d and 3d persons. Geƿꞃıxl for ᵹeƿꞃıxle changes; ꞅuꞅl ꞅuꞅel sulphur; ꞅƿæꝼl for ꞅƿæꝼel sulphur; bloꞅm for bloꞅma a blossom; boꞅm for boꞅum bosom; boꞇl for boꞇle a village, house, &c.; bꞃıꝺl for bꞃıꝺel a bridle.

Contractions of words are common: as N’ẏꞅꞇe for ne ƿıꞅꞇ knew not; n’æꝼꝺe for ne hæꝼeꝺ had not; ẏꞃn’ð for ẏꞃneð runneth.

In Dan. Sax., on the other hand, monosyllables are sometimes changed into longer words: as ƿꞃað anger, wrath, lengthened into ƿaꞃað. Other words contract two syllables into one; as cẏnınᵹ into kẏnᵹ a king.

The different letters suffer a very frequent change of position: as ꞇınꞇeꞃᵹe, ꞇınꞇꞃeᵹe pain; þıꞃꝺa, þꞃıꝺꝺa third.

A very great variety exists in writing the same word by different Anglo-Saxon authors, as will appear from the following examples: ᵹeoᵹeþe, ᵹeoᵹoð, ᵹeoᵹuð, ᵹeᵹoþe, ıoᵹoð, ıuᵹuð youth; mæneᵹeo many, a multitude, is written mæneᵹo, mænıᵹeo, mænıᵹo, mænıᵹu, mænıo, mænıu, mænẏᵹeo, maneᵹeo, maneᵹu, manıᵹe, manıᵹo, manıᵹu, meneᵹeo, meneᵹo, meneᵹu, menıᵹeo, menıᵹo, menıᵹu, menıo, menıu.

Adjectives in the comparative degree end indifferently in aꞃ, æꞃ, eꞃ, ıꞃ, oꞃ, uꞃ, or ẏꞃ; and the superlative in aꞅꞇ, æꞅꞇ, eꞅꞇ, ıꞅꞇ, oꞅꞇ, uꞅꞇ, or ẏꞅꞇ.

Active participles end in anꝺ, anꝺe, ænꝺ, ænꝺe, enꝺ, ınꝺ, onꝺ, unꝺ or ẏnꝺ; and passive participles in aꝺ, æꝺ, eꝺ, ıꝺ, oꝺ, uꝺ, or ẏꝺ.

So also, [H]e ꝺıelꝼ, ꝺealꝼ, ꝺelꝼ or ꝺalꝼ he dug; and læꞅƿenꝺe, læꞅƿıᵹenꝺe, læꞅᵹenꝺe or læꞅıenꝺe feeding; ıc ƿuꞃpe, ıc ƿeoꞃpe, ıc ƿẏꞃpe, or ıc ƿeꞃpe I cast away; man, mon a man; he mæᵹe or muᵹe he may; he ꞅıᵹ, ꞅı, ꞅıe, ꞅe, ꞅıo, or ꞅeo he is; ꞅınꝺon, ꞅenꝺon, ꞅıenꝺon, ꞅınꞇ, ꞅıenꞇ, ꞅınꝺ, ꞅın, ꞅıen, ꞅeon, are.

Some short words assume very different meanings: as bıᵹ, bıᵹe, bẏᵹe, beᵹ, beaᵹ, beah and beh, which, according to their connexion, signify indifferently, a turning, a crown, a gem, a bosom, buy, he turned, he submitted, &c. from buᵹan, to turn, bow, &c.—The Elements of Anglo-Saxon Grammar. By the Rev. J. Bosworth, M.A. F.A.S., 8vo. 1823.

“The Saxon capitals which vary from those now used are C, E, G, H, M, and W. The small letters are d, f, g, r, s, t, and w, which are all Roman, except the Ƿ, ƿ, and some notes of abbreviations used by the Saxons, as Ð ð, þ th, ꝥ that, &c. Many other abbreviations were used by the Saxons. These notes of abbreviation are not the original members of an alphabet; they were the result of later reflection, and were introduced for dispatch.

“By an attentive observation of the different specimens of writing in England, we perceive the several gradations of change, by which one form of a Roman character has imperceptibly changed into another. The Saxon ƿ, says Mr. Whitaker, seems to have been only the Roman V at first, and to have been lengthened into the Saxon character, and enlarged into the present Roman W, by bringing the principal stroke somewhat lower, and closing the top in the one, and by redoubling the whole in the other. The W is unknown, both to the Latin and its daughter languages, the French, the Spanish, and the Italian: it is composed of two characters, namely of the V or U doubled.

“The writing which prevailed in England from the coming of St. Augustin, in 596, to the middle of the eleventh century, is generally termed Saxon, and may be divided into five kinds, namely, the Roman Saxon, the set Saxon, the running hand Saxon, the mixed Saxon, and the elegant Saxon.”—Astle.

Elegant Saxon.—This writing was adopted in England in the tenth century, and was continued till the Norman conquest; but was not entirely disused till the middle of the thirteenth century.

All subsequent Saxon writers endeavour to keep as near as possible to the form of the letters in a book of Saxon Homilies in the Lambeth Library (No. 439), written in the tenth century. There is a beautiful specimen in the MSS. of the Rev. E. Thwaites, M. A. to be found in the Harleian MSS., at the British Museum (No. 1866). It is described in Nichols’s Lit. Anec., vol. iv. p. 140, as “one of the most lovely specimens of modern Saxon writing that can be imagined.”—Bosworth, p. 20.

About the year 1567, John Daye, who was patronized by Archbishop Parker, cut the first Saxon types which were used in England. In this year Asserius Menevensis was published by the direction of the archbishop in these characters; and in the same year Archbishop Ælfric’s Paschal Homily; and, in 1571, the Saxon Gospels. Daye’s Saxon types far excel in neatness and beauty any which have been since made, not excepting the neat types cast for F. Junius at Dort, which were given by him to the University of Oxford. Astle, p. 224.—Bosworth.

“The Saxon types which were used in printing St. Gregory’s Homily, having been burnt in the fire which consumed Mr. Bowyer’s house and all his printing materials [Jan. 30. 1712-13], Lord Chief Justice Parker was so munificently indulgent, as to be at the expence of cutting a new Saxon type for Mrs. Elstob’s Saxon Grammar, from fac similes by Mrs. Elstob; the punches and matrices of which Mr. Bowyer’s son presented, by the hands of Edward Rowe-Mores, esq; to the University of Oxford. See the Archæologia Antiq. Soc vol. i. p. xxvii.”—Gent. Mag., Oct. 1778, p. 455. Note.

Saxon Upper Case.

Saxon Lower Case.

Saxon in British Founderies.

Double Pica.—Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley.

Great Primer.—Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley.

English.—Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. Oxford. Wilson.

Pica.—Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J. Figgins. Oxford. Wilson.

Small Pica.—Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J. Figgins. Oxford. Wilson.

Long Primer.—Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson.

Brevier.—Caslon. Fry, to Thorowgood and Besley. V. and J. Figgins. Wilson.

The Saxon Alphabet

Layout of Saxon case